IC-NRLF 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


GULICK 


When  Prompt  Action  is  Necessary 

ACCIDENTS  4ND 
EMERGENCIES 

By  CHARLES  W.  DULLES,  M.V. 

will   be  found  an   Unfailing  Guide 


Fifth  Edition,  with  new  illustrations,  some  in  color, 
indicating  plainly  the  manual  treatment  prescribed 


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How  to  stop  bleeding  of  main  blood-vessel  of  the  arm 

This  valuable  little  manual  has  been  written  with  the 
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the  speedy  relief  of  injured  persons,  till  the  arrival  of 
skilled  assistance,  including  poisoning,  drowning,  frac- 
tures, hemorrhages,  wounds,  etc. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


BY 


MUSCULAR  EXERCISE 


LUTHER  HALSEY  GULICK,  M.D., 

DIRECTOR    OF    PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   THE    PUBLIC     SCHOOLS    OF   GREATER    NEW   YORK  ;     PRESIDENT    OF 
AMERICAN    PHYSICAL    EDUCATION    SOCIETY,    ETC. 


OF  THE 

{   UNIVERSITY  ) 


illustrate  t> 


PHILADELPHIA 

P.    BLAKISTON'S   SON    &   CO. 

1012    WALNUT    STREET 
1904 


COPYRIGHT,  1904,  BY  P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  Co. 


ft 

REPRINTED  FROM  VOL.  VII  OF  "COHEN'S  SYSTEM  OF  PHYSIOLOGIC  THERAPEUTICS,"  PHILADELPHIA, 

P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  Co. 


PREFACE 


The  material  in  this  little  book  grew  up  gradually  through  the 
exigencies  of  a  lecture  course  on  the  Philosophy  of  Exercise.  The  sub- 
ject-matter appeared  in  the  "Y.  M.  C.  A.  Athletic  League  Letter"  in 
1899-1900. 

The  range  of  topics  discussed  indicates  my  indebtedness  to  many 
persons.  My  first  impulses  toward  working  out  my  own  thought  on 
the  subject  came  from  my  instructor,  Dr.  Dudley  Allen  Sargent,  of  Har- 
vard University.  The  direction  of  my  study  was  largely  influenced 
for  years  by  Dr.  E.  M.  Hartwell,  then  of  Johns  Hopkins.  To  the  in- 
spiration of  President  G.  Stanley  Hall  I  owe  the  biologic  point  of  view. 
To  Dr.  Wm.  T.  Harris  I  owe  my  first  thought  in  regard  to  the  relation 
of  exercise  to  the  vegetative  processes.  To  Dr.  T.  M.  Balliet,  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  I  also  owe  much.  I  do  not  wish  to  saddle  these 
gentlemen  with  the  responsibility  for  these  ideas,  for  many  of  them  are 
my  own. 

If  I  have  succeeded  in  my  endeavor  this  book  will  be  of  service  to 
those  who  wish  a  general  view  of  the  subject,  whether  for  use  in  medicine 
or  education. 

L.  H.  G 


161886 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I  PAGES 

EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 1-28 

General  Aim,  i.  Exercise,  and  Evolution,  2.  City  and  Exercise,  3. 
Occupation,  3.  Schools,  4.  Balance  between  Neural  and  Muscular 
Expenditure,  5.  Special  Classes,  6.  Exercise  in  Accordance  with 
Function,  7.  Physiology  of  Exercise,  9:  Effect  upon  the  Muscle- 
cell,  9;  Effect  on  the  Body  as  a  Whole,  9;  Special  Effects  of  Muscular 
Exercise,  10;  Position  during  Exercise,  n;  Physiologic  Load,  13. 
Neurologic  Considerations,  15:  Moderate  and  Excessive  Exercise,  16; 
Physical  Exercise  and  Cerebral  Development  of  the  Brain,  17; 
Fatigue,  18;  Co-operation  among  Contiguous  Nerve-centers,  18; 
Muscular  Contraction  and  Psychic  Activity,  21.  Limits  of  Special- 
ization in  Exercise,  24;  Somatic  Harmony,  25;  Competition,  26. 
Dosage  of  Exercise,  26. 

CHAPTER  II 

MATERIA  GYMNASTICA;  SPORTS  AND  GAMES;  SYSTEMS  OF  GYMNASTICS,.  .  .  29-64 
Walking  and  Running,  29.  Calisthenics,  31.  Pulley-weight  Exer- 
cise, 33.  Heavy  Gymnastic  Apparatus  Exercises,  37.  Track  and 
Field  Athletics,  39.  Athletic  Games,  39.  Wrestling,  Boxing  and 
Fencing,  41.  Bicycling,  42.  Golf,  43.  Horseback-riding,  43. 
Bowling,  43.  Rowing,  44.  Relation  of  Physical  Exercise  to  Age 
and  Sex,  44.  Baseball,  Cricket,  Hockey,  Shinney,  Basket  ball,  46. 
Football,  47.  MEDICALLY  CONSIDERED:  Condition,  51;  Habit,  52; 
Strength,  53;  Endurance,  53.  SYSTEMS  OF  GYMNASTICS:  German 
Gymnastics,  54;  Swedish  Gymnastics,  56;  English  Physical  Exercises, 
58;  Delsarte,  59;  Sargent,  60;  Emerson,  61;  Young  Men's  Christian 
^^Associations,  62.  Dancing,  63. 


INDEX 65 


Vll 


X 

OF  THE  A 

UNIVERSITY   I] 

OF 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION   BY  MUSCULAR 
EXERCISE, 

V 


CHAPTER  I 
EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

General  Aim.  Exercise  and  Evolution.  City  and  Exercise.  Occupa- 
tion. Schools.  Balance  between  Neural  and  Muscular  Expenditure. 
Special  Classes.  Exercise  in  Accordance  with  Function.  Physiology  o} 
Exercise:  Effect  on  the  Muscle-cell;  Effect  on  the  Body  as  a  Whole;  Special 
Effects  of  Muscular  Exercise;  Position  during  Exercise;  Physiologic  Load. 
Neurologic  Considerations:  Moderate  and  Excessive  Exercise;  Physical 
Exercise  and  Cerebral  Development  of  the  Brain;  Fatigue;  Co-operation 
among  Contiguous  Nerve-centers;  Muscular  Contraction  and  Psychic 
Activity.  Limits  of  Specialization  in  Exercise;  Somatic  Harmony;  Com- 
petition. Dosage  of  Exercise. 

General  Aim 

For  our  purposes  muscular  exercise  may  be  considered  from  three 
viewpoints  : 

1 .  In  relation  to  its  use  as  a  definite  remedial  measure  in  a  few  patho- 
logic conditions. 

2.  In  relation  to  the  development  of  the  individual  in  structure  and 
function. 

3.  In  relation  to  general  somatic  vigor.     Somatic  vigor  is  the  essence 
of  that  power  of  resistance  which  the  organism  shows  to  the  invasion  of 
disease.     It  is  well  known  that  the  power  of  resistance  varies  much  in 
the  individual  from  time  to  time;  pathogenic  bacteria  will  at  one  time 
be  destroyed  promptly,  while  at  another  they  will  gain  a  foothold  and 
multiply. 

Disease  must  be  avoided  by  the  prevention  of  inoculation ;  but,  what  is 
of  equal  importance,  it  must  be  averted  by  the  maintenance  of  such 


2  EXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

bodily  vigor  that  the  maximum  of  resistance  will  be  offered  by  the  organ- 
ism itself. 

Special  Considerations. — The  physician  has  three  questions  to  answer 
about  muscular  exercise : 

1 .  What  specific  exercises  will  be  effective  in  given  pathologic  states? 
Under  this  head  I  discuss  nothing  here.     It  is  my  province  to  examine 
the  general  effects  of  exercise  together  with  the  detailed  effects  of  specific 
exercises  and  sports. 

2.  What  character  and  quantity  of  exercise  are  needed  for  the  grow- 
ing organism,  to  insure  balanced  development?     Physicians  must  pass 
upon  the  claims  of  various  systems  of  gymnastics  that  are  offered  for 
adoption  by  schools,  as  well  as  upon  the  necessity  for,  and  the  character 
of,  work  outside  of  school.     It  is  hoped  that  the  data  given  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  full  and  intelligent  answers  to  these  questions. 

3.  What  exercises  are  best  adapted  under  various  conditions,  such  as 
age,  sex,  and  the  like,  to  render  most  active  the  general  somatic  life  of 
the  individual?     This  question  I  hope  to  answer  with  some  degree  of 
definiteness. 

I  am  aware  that  some  of  the  more  important  conclusions  here  set 
forth  are  not  in  accord  with  the  accepted  doctrines  of  many  teachers  of 
physical  training;  yet  these  views  will  be  seen  to  have  their  justification 
both  in  clinical  experience  and  in  biologic  science.  While  I  shall  in  the 
main  confine  my  work  to  conclusions  and  their  practical  application, 
certain  preliminary  considerations  need  to  be  stated,  to  form  a  rational 
basis  for  the  practical  directions  that  follow. 

Exercise  and  Evolution. — Those  conditions  under  which  the  body 
was  given  its  present  size,  shape,  and  structure  are  in  general  the  condi- 
tions adapted  to  maintaining  the  fullest  functional  activity.  During 
the  unnumbered  years  of  evolutionary  time,  muscular  exercise  in  labor, 
war,  or  the  chase  has  been  one  of  the  major  elements  of  human  experience. 
Upon  neuromuscular  ability  the  race  has  depended  for  survival,  even 
when  its  ancestors  were  in  a  condition  of  development  yet  more  elemen- 
tary than  that  of  savage  life.  A  biologist,  having  brought  to  him  a 
human  body  and  being  asked  for  a  statement  of  its  functions  from  an 
examination  of  the  structure,  would  say  that  both  in  form  and  function 
the  organism  must  have  been  adapted  to  a  life  of  considerable  muscular 
exertion;  that  this  appeared,  first,  from  the  proportions  of  the  muscular 
system;  that  the  lungs  as  well  as  the  heart  indicated  far  more  capacity 
than  would  be  needed  for  a  life  exclusively  or  even  largely  sedentary; 
and,  finally,  that  the  nervous  system  was  designed  predominantly  for 


EFFECT    OF    CIVILIZATION    ON    MUSCULAR    DEVELOPMENT.  3 

the  initiation  or  control  of  muscular  movements.  The  health  of  such  an 
organism  depends  upon  the  balanced  co-operation  of  all  its  parts.  These 
parts  have  become  adjusted  to  a  certain  general  balance  in  the  activities 
of  the  nutritive,  neural,  and  muscular  tissues.  No  argument  is  necessary 
to  the  evolutionist  to  show  that  the  necessity  for  muscular  exercise  has 
been  constant  and  predominant  throughout  the  whole  history  of  the 
life  of  the  species ;  that  it  has  been  so  constant  and  so  large  a  factor  in 
adjustment  to  the  total  environment  as  to  have  had  a  chief  share  in  de- 
termining the  character  of  the  organism  itself ;  and  that  those  conditions 
which  have  been  decisive  in  determining  the  form  and  functions  of  the 
organism  are  the  conditions  in  which  it  functionates  the  best. 

The  argument  for  muscular  exercise  from  the  standpoint  of  evolution  | 
is  thus  the  strongest  that  can  be  presented.  The  environment  of  the 
organism  cannot  be  changed  in  other  respects  with  impunity.  Man 
has  become  adapted  to  breathing  air  of  a  certain  approximate  con- 
stitution, and  he  is  at  his  best  in  this  environment.  He  has  become 
measurably  able  to  carry  Jtiis  environment  with  him  with  reference,  for 
instance,  to  temperature,  and  somewhat  with  reference  to  light;  but  the 
general  fact  remains  that  perfect  adaptation  to  environment  is  most 
definitely  related  to  health. 

City  and  Exercise. — Man  has  by  conscious  direction  so  utilized  artifi- 
cial coverings  as  to  be  able  to  maintain  a  certain  thermic  environment 
in  spite  of  variations  in  the  natural  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
time  is  rapidly  approaching  when  he  must  generally  take  as  consciously 
under  his  direction  the  matter  of  muscular  exercise,  because  the  process 
of  civilization  is  taking  away  from  him  those  natural  demands  for  mus- 
cular exercise  which  have  been  its  efficient  ca"use  during  the  ages  of  evo- 
lution. The  conditions  of  human  life  in  civilized  countries  have  changed 
more  since  the  development  of  the  steam-engine  than  they  had  for 
thousands  of  years  previously.  In  the  United  States  the  proportion  of 
steam  power  to  manual  labor  is  represented  by  a  steam-engine  of  nj 
horse-power  to  every  male  adult  inhabitant.  The  bulk  of  the  heavy 
work  in  the  civilized  world  is  done  by  machinery  and  not  by  human 
muscles.  There  is  still  a  good  deal  of  muscular  work  performed,  but  it 
is  decreasing  rapidly.  It  is  least  among  the  most  civilized  peoples,  and 
among  these  peoples  is  least  among  the  most  civilized  classes.  .  The 
management  of  machinery  demands  not  muscular  force,  but  muscular 
skill  and  intelligence. 

Occupation. — In  connection  with  this  specialization,  there  have 
arisen  a  whole  group  of  so-called  diseases  of  occupation,  some  of  these 
related  definitely  to  the  specialization  itself — such  as  writer's  ccamp. 


4  EXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

In  the  handling  of  machinery  the  tendency  is  to  have  individuals 
make  comparatively  few  movements  many  times.  The  more  general 
activities  of  early  farm  life  called  for  a  far  more  varied  set  of  muscular 
movements.  For  example,  personal  experience  on  the  farm  for  a  short 
period  embraced  the  following  forms  of  exercise :  driving  the  cows  home 
and  milking  them,  caring  for  horses  and  stables,  sharpening  tools,  hand- 
ling hay  and  grain  with  pitchfork,  driving  a  horse-rake,  digging  pota- 
toes, cleansing  large  milk  cans,  making  wooden  handles  for  tools,  dish- 
washing, building  rail  fence,  chopping  wood,  helping  with  cross-cut  saw 
(two  men),  working  on  a  threshing-machine,  hoeing  weeds  in  a  potato 
patch,  husking  corn,  sawing  wood  with  a  buck-saw,  repairing  in  wood- 
work, helping  to  build  a  stone  fence,  digging  out  woodchucks,  hunting 
gray  squirrels,  and  a  multitude  of  minor  exertions  that  slip  the  memory. 
Let  these  activities  be  compared  with  those  of  the  mill  operative  who 
"tends  a  machine"  of  some  kind,  or  with  those  of  the  salesman  in  a 
store,  or  the  clerk  in  a  bank,  and  the  contrast  becomes  evident. 

Finally,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  process  of  urbanization 
is  a  progressive  one,  needing  continually  greater  attention  from  the 
physician.  In  1790  considerably  less  than  4  per  cent,  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  lived  in  cities  and  villages.  A  general  comparison 
with  the  present  condition  is  hardly  fair  because  of  the  immense  tracts 
of  sparsely  settled  country  that  have  been  acquired  since  then;  but 
in  spite  of  this,  the  census  of  1900  (Abstract  of  Census,  page  38)  shows 
that  only  59.8  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  now  classified  as  living 
in  country  districts.  The  change  from  96  per  cent,  to  59.8  per  cent,  in 
one  hundred  and  ten  years  is  instructive.  The  lesson  is  still  more 
dramatically  told  by  a  study  of  the  urban  growth  in  some  of  the  more 
stable  eastern  States  Massachusetts  has  only  8.5  per  cent,  in  country 
districts,  Connecticut  25.1  per  cent.,  New  Jersey  29.4  per  cent.,  New 
York  27.1  per  cent.,  Rhode  Island  5  per  cent. 

Schools. — Another  process  that  is  rendering  conscious  attention  to 
muscular  exercise  necessary  is  the  growth  in  school  population,  and  the 
increase  in  the  length  of  time  during  which  children  go  to  school.  In 
1840,  out  of  a  total  population  of  17,069,453,  there  was  a  school  popu- 
lation of  2,025,565,  or  ii  per  cent.  In  1890,  out  of  a  total  population  of 
62,622,250,  there  was  a  school  population  of  14,768,965,  or  23  per  cent. 
The  normal  life  of  the  child  is  one  of  steady  activity  during  the  waking 
hours.  We  are  taking  away  for  five  hours  a  day  a  large  part  of  this 
activity.  It  will  be  shown  further  on  that  exercise  is  fundamentally 
related  to  growth,  so  that  the  harmfulness  of  this  lessening  of  exercise  by 
school  limitations  during  the  early  years  of  life  is  readily  seen.  Not  only 


EFFECT    OF    CIVILIZATION    ON    MUSCULAR    DEVELOPMENT.  5 

is  muscular  exercise  decreased  by  school  life,  but  pressure  is  brought  to 
bear  to  increase  the  attention  to  psychic  things.  Thus,  there  is  a  coin- 
cident decrease  in  muscular  expenditure  and  an  increase  in  lines  that  are 
purely  neural. 

Intercommunication. — There  are  further  factors  that  are  changing 
the  balance  between  the  neural  and  muscular  expenditures  of  the  body'; 
for  instance,  in  modern  life  the  growth  of  the  news- communicating 
agencies,  shown  not  only  in  the  tremendous  increase  in  the  postal 
service,  but  in  the  development  of  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  and  the 
daily  press.  Two  kinds  of  results  may  be  traced  to  these  sources: 

1.  A  vast  increase  in  the  amount  of  business  done  in  a  given  time, 
without  any  decrease  in  the  necessary  expenditure  of  thought.     That 
the  modern  business  man  accomplishes  a  vastly  greater  quantity  of 
business  than  his  ancestors  did  in  the  same  length  of  time  is  as  evident 
to  those  who  are  familiar  with  modern  conditions  as  it  is  impossible  to 
set  forth  statistically. 

2.  News-communicating    agencies  bring  us  into   contact  with  the 
whole  world  as  never  before,  and  thus  emotion,  which  is  a  peculiarly 
exhausting  form  of   psychic  activity,  is  stimulated.      The  daily  press 
deluges  our  minds  with  the  tragic  occurrences  of  the  world.      Then, 
again,  the  development  of  city  life  diminishes  the  amount  of  sunshine 
that  the  average  individual  will  get,  and  in  most  cases  also  the  quantity 
of  fresh  air.     The  tremendous  growth  in  the  use  of  drugs  affecting  the 
nervous  system  reflects  a  corresponding  increase  in  disorders  of  that 
system.     The  increase  in  women's  diseases  with  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  the  decrease  in  the  muscular  work  of  women,  are  more  than 
mere  coincidence,  as  is  shown  by  the  comparatively  robust  health  of 
women  who  do  regular  physical  work;   even  when  it  is  carried  on  to 
the  extent  found  among  female  acrobats  working  in  circuses,  we  still 
find  great  health  and  vigor,  contrasting  markedly  with  the  health  of 
women  whose  lives  have  but  little  of  muscular  activity.     Attention  has 
frequently  been  called  to  the  inferiority  of  stock  born  and  bred  in  the 
conditions  of  city  life.     This  was  first  pointed  out  by  Rousseau,  and  has 
been  since  stated  repeatedly.     It  appears  that  the  city  is  a  sort  of  bio- 
logic furnace  which  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  generations  pretty 
thoroughly  burns  up  vitality,  and  that  the  addition  of  country  stock  is 
essential  for  the  perpetuation  of  family  life  in  the  city. 

General  Results. — All  these  differences  coincident  with  civilization 
and  the  development  of  the  city  are  disturbing  the  balance  of  expenditure 
between  the  neural  and  muscular  systems.  In  muscular  exercise  triere 
is  the  neural  element,  but  in  mental  and  emotional  activity  there  is  not 


6  EXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

the  muscular.  The  result  is  a  new  balance  in  the  total  activity  of  the 
body,  a  different  environment  with  reference  to  activity  from  that  which 
the  organism  is  adapted  to,  or  has  previously  had. 

Special  Classes. — Let  us  now  note  a  little  more  in  detail  the  different 
classes  in  the  city  with  reference  to  their  physical  activity.  The  workers 
in  factories  and  shops,  handling  machinery  for  approximately  ten  hours 
a  day,  make  an  immense  number  of  movements  of  a  more  or  less  uniform 
character.  The  clerical  classes — bookkeepers,  stenographers,  salesmen — 
have  considerable  walking  to  do,  handling  goods,  going  on  errands,  and 
the  like.  Most  of  them  do  no  work  that  involves  deep  breathing  or 
quickening  of  the  circulation.  Their  muscles  do  not  have  a  physiologic 
amount  of  labor  from  one  month's  end  to  another,  except  the  small 
muscles  involved  in  writing  or  similar  occupations.  We  find  them  as  a 
class  with  sunken  chests,  small  arms,  more  or  less  round-shouldered,  and 
with  but  little  physical  endurance  or  muscular  strength.  The  cardiac 
muscle  is  not  specially  vigorous.  Business  men  lead  lives  that  are  largely 
sedentary.  The  burden  of  their  work  is  done  at  the  desk.  Such  men 
are  often  fat,  with  protuberant  abdomens.  They  have  even  less  mus- 
cular labor  to  perform  than  the  clerical  class.  Women  who  work  in 
factories  have  already  been  considered.  Women  who  do  domestic 
service  have  sufficient  muscular  activity  of  varied  character,  and  so  far  as 
this  element  is  concerned  nothing  is  needed.  Mistresses  of  households, 
while  they  are  about  a  great  deal,  do  so  little  work  involving  activity 
of  the  large  groups  of  muscles  that  these  muscles  are  rarely  in  a  con- 
dition of  normal  vigor.  Manual  laborers  in  a  community  are  com- 
paratively healthy. 

The  object  of  the  discussion  so  far  is  to  show  that  in  civilized  com- 
munities the  environment  that  has  been  making  during  untold  ages  for 
the  present  shape  and  functions  of  the  human  body  has  so  changed 
that  the  normal  requirements  of  daily  life  for  muscular  activity  are  in- 
sufficient to  keep  the  organism  in  that  condition  of  vigor  necessary  to 
the  best  health ;  and  hence  that  to  maintain  the  body  in  conditions  of 
health  and  vigor,  conscious  attention  to  this  factor  of  environment  is  of 
increasing  necessity. 


FUNCTION  MAKES  STRUCTURE 

This,  the  well-worn  formula  of  the  evolutionist,  may  be  applied  in 
two  directions.  First,  it  implies  that  to  produce  any  given  effect  upon 
the  structure  of  the  organism,  we  should  institute  exercises  that  are 
calculated  to  achieve  the  desired  perfection  of  structure.  Secondly, 


EXERCISE    IN    ACCORDANCE    WITH    FUNCTION  7 

it  implies  that  except  under  certain  pathologic  conditions,  the  kind  of 
exercise  best  adapted  to  produce  the  balanced  and  healthful  develop- 
ment of  the  body  as  a  whole  or  of  its  parts  is,  in  the  main,  the  kind  of 
exercise  for  which  the  part  exercised  is  best  adapted. 

The  first  point  needs  hardly  more  than  the  statement. '  Leaving  out 
of  account  pathologic  cases,  if  the  heart  is  to  be  increased  in  structure 
we  prescribe  gradually  progressive  exercises  that  make  a  greater  de- 
mand on  the  heart,  with  the  result  that  it  is  gradually  built  up  to  meet 
this  increased  demand.  Upon  this  is  founded  the  special  work  of  Oertel, 
Schott,  and  others.  If  the  muscles  of  the  upper  extremities  seem  to  be 
deficient  in  size,  we  prescribe  exercise  that  demands  the  functioning  of 
these  muscles,  and  we  expect  the  function  to  be  the  indirect  agency  that 
shall  produce  growth  and  structure.  If  we  find  the  muscles  of  the  back 
of  a  growing  girl  flabby  and  poorly  nourished,  with  the  spine  in  the 
early  stage  of  scoliosis,  the  first  indication  is  to  increase  the  power  and 
efficiency  of  the  faulty  muscles.  This  is  accomplished  by  increasing  the 
function  of  the  parts,  and  the  structure  rapidly  follows  the  function. 
This  general  law  applies  not  only  to  the  development  of  muscle-tissue, 
but  to  other  tissues  as  well.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  bones  of  both 
horses  and  men  that  do  work  in  which  power  is  demanded  have  a  heavier 
specific  gravity  and  a  greater  density  of  structure  than  the  bones  of 
those  engaged  in  less  laborious  occupations. 

The  second  application  of  this  formula  is  that  the  body  as  a  whole,  and 
each  of  its  parts,  is  best  exercised  in  accordance  with  its  natural  function. 
The  far-reaching  character  of  this  principle  is  not  easily  seen  at  first 
glance.  The  upper  extremity  is  obviously  adapted  for  the  handling  of 
objects.  The  great  range  of  movements  allowed  by  the  shoulder-joint 
as  contrasted  with  the  hip- joint,  the  structure  of  the  forearm  as  compared 
with  the  leg,  allowing  not  only  flexion  and  extension,  but  pronation  and 
supination  in  the  arm,  the  more  delicate  structure  of  the  hand,  the  in- 
dependence of  the  phalanges,  the  more  differentiated  nerve-supnly  to 
the  muscular  tissue — all  point  to  a  difference  in  function  in  thes§  two 
organs:  the  lower  extremity  as  a  whole  being  adapted  for  power,  the 
upper  extremity  for  varied  action,  delicacy,  quickness  of  movement,  and 
the  like.  It  is  true  that  the  upper  extremity  may  be  trained  so  that  the 
weight  of  the  body  shall  be  handled  by  it  alone  for  considerable  periods. 
This  is  done  by  performers  on  the  horizontal  bar,  the  German  horse, 
rings,  and  the  trapeze;  but  it  is  a  departure  from  the  normal  function  of 
the  arms  and  results  in  limitation  of  the  movements  at  the  shoulder- 
joint,  the  stiffening  of  the  ligaments  of  the  hand,  and  general  perversion 
of  function.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  to  train  the  legs  to  exer- 


8  EXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

~"\ 

cises  of  great  skill  and  delicacy ;  jugglers  who  learn  to  handle  objects  with 
bheir  feet  while  lying  on  their  backs  accomplish  this  result ;  but  in  neither 
case  are  the  results  worth  the  labor  expended.  They  are  not  in  line  with 
the  natural  functions  of  the  organs,  and  the  best  development  of  each 
part  of  the  organism  is  related  to  its  natural  function.  Our  aim  should  be 
not  to  see  what  each  part  can  be  trained  to  do,  but  to  get  each  part  into 
'ts  normal  condition.  The  body  can  be  trained  to  do  and  to  endure 
many  things  that  are  not  only  useless,  but  harmful.  Because  a  man 
can  learn  to  walk  on  his  hands  is  no  sufficient  argument  for  men  to 
adopt  that  mode  of  locomotion;  because  the  shoulder-joint  can  be  made 
to  resemble  somewhat  the  hip- joint  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be  made 
to  do  so;  so  that,  excepting  conditions  dependent  upon  pathologic  states, 
it  may  be  safely  said  as  a  general  proposition  that  the  exercise  of  the 
body  as  a  whole,  and  of  its  parts  in  particular,  should  be  related  to  the 
natural  functions  of  the  part. 

Vis  naturae. — With  normal  heredity  and  normal  environment  the 
individual  will  develop  a  balanced  organism.  The  constant  tendency 
of  the  organism  is  to  develop  along  suitable  lines.  Upon  the  germ  plasm 
is  written' the  law  of  development  of  the  individual.  Environment  may 
hinder  or  accelerate  this  development :  if  it  is  one-sided  or  otherwise  per- 
verted, the  results  will  be  abnormal,  but  the  essential  character  of  the 
protoplasm  cannot  be  altered.  This  fact  is  of  supreme  importance  in  the 
physical  education  of  the  young.  It  has  been  customary  to  measure 
the  various  parts  with  great  exactness,  and  then  to  attempt  to  prescribe 
exercise  that  shall  meet  the  specific  needs  of  each  part,  as  shown  by  its 
deviation  from  the  average  of  the  species.  Theoretic  reasoning  as  well 
as  experience  shows  that  such  work  is  generally  useless.  What  is  needed 
in  normal  cases  is  to  supply  normal  conditions  of  food,  rest,  exercise, 
sleep,  and  the  like.  That  which  is  a  perfectly  symmetric  body  for  one 
person  will  not  be  so  for  another.  When  the  deviations  from  the  average 
are  so  marked  as  to  be  pathologic,  or  when  there  is  specific  disease  that 
must  be  combated,  the  conditions  are  somewhat  different.  What  are 
now  referred  to  are  the  smaller  differences,  which  are  entirely  normal. 
For  instance,  the  fact  that  the  left  arm  is  a  quarter  or  even  half  an  inch 
less  in  girth  than  the  right  arm  is  not  a  matter  for  special  consideration. 
If  both  arms  be  given  vigorous  work,  they  will  become  equal  not  only 
in  measurement  but  in  power  as  well.  This  I  have  repeatedly  demon- 
strated upon  both  the  growing  and  the  full-grown  organism.  It  is 
commonly  said  that  the  girth  of  the  neck  and  of  the  flexed  upper  arm 
and  of  the  calf  should  be  the  same,  and  some  have  spent  much  time  in  the 
endeavor  to  secure  such  measurements ;  but  more  basal  than  such  arti- 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    EXERCISE  9 

ficial  conception  of  symmetry  is  the  standard  of  development  contained 
in  the  germ  plasm  of  each  person.  If  vigorous  all-round  exercises  pro- 
duce such  measurements  in  the  individual,  they  are  then  the  best  for 
that  individual.  If  not,  the  endeavor  to  secure  them  is  prejudicial 
rather  than  helpful.  In  subjects  of  so-called  nervous  temperament, 
with  long,  rather  slender  bones  and  small  joints,  the  muscular  pro- 
portions differ  from  those  in  whom  opposite  conditions  obtain,  and  the 
attempt  by  means  of  artificial  standards  to  force  individuals  of  these 
two  types  into  the  same  physical  form  is  most  unwise.  We  may  demand 
similar  functions  from  the  bodies  of  the  two,  but  the  proportions  of  the 
body  will  take  care  of  themselves.  It  is  our  business  to  furnish  a  suit- 
able environment  and  demand  the  normal  functions.  Natural  tendencies 
may  then  be  depended  upon  to  render  the  structure  normal,  or  at  least 
to  give  it  that  type  best  adapted  for  the  life  of  the  individual. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  EXERCISE 

The  contraction  of  a  single  muscle  involves  three  major  elements: 
activity  in  the  motor  center,  a  nerve-current  to  the  muscle  ,\  contraction 
of  muscle-fibers.  Let  us  note  the  general  effect  of  exercise  in  these  three 
divisions. 

Effect  upon  the  Muscle-cell. — The  contraction  of  the  muscle-substance 
\s  accomplished  by  a  mechanism  as  yet  beyond  ultimate  analysis.  Energy 
is  expended.  Some  of  the  highly  complex  cell-constituents  are -broken 
down  and  extruded.  The  cell  at  once  proceeds  to  absorb  from  the  sur- 
rounding plasma  additional  food  materials,  particularly  carbohydrates 
and  oxygen.  Thus,  muscular  activity  results  in  the  constant  change 
of  some  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  muscle-cell  itself,  which  is  kept 
in  a  state  of  increased  efficiency  proportionate  to  its  use.  Both  the  num- 
ber and  the  size  of  muscle-cells  are  increased  by  exercise.  The  sar- 
colemma  appears  to  be  slightly  increased  in  strength.  The  growth  in 
this,  the  fibrous  part  of  the  muscle,  is  well  shown  in  the  toughness  of 
muscles  taken  from  animals  that  are  heavily  worked  as  compared  with 
those  that  are  not  so  worked,  or  with  the  flesh  from  animals  that  have 
never  been  worked  hard;  the  fibers  being  coarser  and  heavier,  the 
tendons  thicker  and  less  yielding,  the  whole  muscle  firmer. 

General  Effects  of  Muscular  Exercise 

The  absorption  by  the  muscle-cells  of  oxygen  and  carbohydrates  from 
the  blood  plasma  has  immediate  and  ultimate  effects  upon  the  body  as  a 
whole.  When  muscular  energy  is  expended,  the  blood  is  altered  in  consti- 
tution. Such  blood  flowing  through  the  respiratory  center  in  considerable 


IO  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

quantities  causes  increased  respiratory  movements.  All  the  muscles  of 
respiration  are  thus  brought  into  immediate  and  often  vigorous  action, 
even  the  accessory  muscles  being  called  on  promptly  when  there  is  partic- 
ular need  of  rapidly  augmenting  the  oxygen  supply.  The  blood  circulating 
through  the  lungs  makes  up  its  oxygen  tension,  the  added  activity  of 
respiration  changes  the  air  in  the  lungs,  with  the  result  that  during  exercise 
the  percentage  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs  is  greater  than  usual.  The  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscular  fibers  squeezes  the  -lymph-vessels  and  the  smaller 
veins  so  that  blood  and  lymph  are  pressed  onward  toward  the  heart. 
This,  together  with  stimulation  of  the  ce'nters  governing  circulation  in  the 
medulla,  causes  increased  cardiac  activity.  The  quickening  and  deepen- 
ing of  respiration  also  are  effective  in  the  aspiration  of  the  thorax.  By 
these  various  means  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  at  once  markedly 
stimulated,  and  the  arteries  supplying  the  muscles  exercised  are  im- 
mediately somewhat  dilated.  We  thus  have  a  completely  adjusted 
mechanism  for  augmenting  food-supply  and  eliminating  waste.  The 
muscle-cell  eliminates  the  products  of  combustion  in  the  form  of  carbon 
dioxid  and  of  urea  or  some  of  its  antecedents.  These  are  carried  away 
by  the  circulation,  which  is  now  accelerated,  the  carbon  dioxid  being 
eliminated  by  the  lungs,  the  urea  by  the  kidneys.  The  greater  consump- 
tion by  the  cell  of  carbohydrates  and  proteids  affects  the  organism  in 
ways  that  are  somewhat  analogous  to  the  enlarged  need  of  oxygen,  but 
instead  of  causing  oxygen  hunger  there  is  produced  hunger  for 'food. 
Through  the  influence  again  of  the  vasomotor  system,  the  whole  digestive 
tract  comes  eventually  into  a  state  of  heightened  activity,  in  part  owing 
to  the  increased  blood-supply,  but  chiefly  to  direct  neural  stimulation. 
The  consciousness  of  hunger  is  more  marked,  and  gradually  the  normal 
individual  will  be  led  to  eat  more  food  as  certainly  and  as  definitely  as 
he  is  prompted  4;o  breathe  more  air.  A  third  group  of  activities  is  due 
to  the  heat  evolved  by  the  rapid  combustion  in  the  muscles.  This  is 
kept  down  by  the  dilatation  of  the  superficial  arteries  and  capillaries 
which  increases  surface  radiation.  At  the  same  time  the  sweat-glands 
are  influenced  through  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  to  operate  with 
more  or  less  vigor,  throwing  sweat  upon  the  skin.  The  evaporation  of 
this  sweat  cools  the  body,  and  is  a  potent  factor  in  preventing  the  rise 
of  the  body-temperature.  Thus,  through  muscular  exercise,  the  function 
of  respiration,  circulation,  nutrition,  and  excretion  are  all  profoundly 
affected,  and  the  heat-controlling  mechanisms  of  the  skin  and  sweat- 
glands  are  stimulated  to  greater  action. 

Special  Effects  of  Muscular  Exercise. — Let  us  now  examine  somewhat 
more  in  detail  certain  special  features  of  bodily  exercise. 


SPECIAL    EFFECTS    OF    MUSCULAR    EXERCISE  II 

Every  muscle  tends  to  contract,  even  during  rest.  This  is  due  to  two 
causes:  the  elasticity  of  muscle-tissue,  and  a  certain  amount  of  stimula- 
tion that  is  constantly  being  sent  to  the  muscle.  The  tension  is  greater 
when  the  muscle  is  healthy  and  when  its  proper  nerve-center  is  in 
normal  state,  than  when  other  conditions  obtain.  Again,  the  strength 
of  this  contraction  varies  directly  as  the  strength  of  the  muscle;  thus, 
when  the  pectorals  are  developed  out  of  proportion  to  the  trapezius  and 
other  muscles,  the  normal  pull  of  the  pectorals  will  overbalance  the  pull 
of  the  trapezius  and  rhomboidei,  with  the  result  that  the  shoulders  will 
be  drawn  forward.  (When  the  flexors  of  the  fingers  are  developed  far 
more  than  the  extensors,  the  fingers  will  hang  in  a  semiflexed  position.) 
The  tendency  of  much  of  the  gymnastics  of  the  heavy  type  performed 
on  gymnastic  apparatus  is  to  develop  the  flexors  not  only  of  the  arms, 
but  of  the  trunk,  more  than  the  extensors,  with  the  result  not  only  that* 
the  hand  is  nearly  contracted  when  at  rest,  the  elbow  hanging  partially 
flexed,  but  the  shoulders  are  drawn  forward,  the  spine  is  bent,  and  the 
ribs  are  depressed  by  the  action  of  the  recti  and  the  two  obliques.  In 
order  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power*  between  the  flexors  and  extensors 
of  the  arms,  and  particularly  of  £e  trunk,  it  is  necessary  to  give  approxi- 
mately twice  as  much  work  to  the  extensors  as  to  the  flexors.  Thus, 
in  doing  work  with  the  pulley-weight  apparatus,  a  person  should  spend, 
approximately  twice  as  much  time  tacmg  the  apparatus  as  with  the  back 
to  it. . 

Muscles  and  ligarneiits^encf  to  assume  £e  position  during  rest  that 


they  occupy  during  exercise.  If,  for  instance,  the  muscles  of  the  fore- 
arm are  exercised  vigorouslyin  a  contracted  position,  as  they  are  in 
rowing,  when  the  man  is  through  rowing  his  fingers  will  stay  almost 
flexed;  and  if  he  rows  day  after  day  for  a  good  while,  only  with  difficulty 
can  the  fingers  be  wholly  extended.  The  muscles  that  contract  the 
fingers  have  overbalanced  the  extensor  muscles,  and  are  holding  these 
fingers  in  the  flexed  condition.  On  the  other  hand,  the  back  of  a  coal- 
heaver  is  an  illustration  of  muscles  that  are  stretched,  and  at  the  same 
time  strong.  The  coal-heaver  has  developed  a  powerful  back,  but  he 
has  used  his  back  in  the  bent  condition,  so  that  while  he  has  great  masses 
of  muscle  upon  his  back,  it  is  difficult  for  him  to  straighten  himself,  and 
after  some  years  of  such  work  he  cannot  do  so  at  all.  The  parts  have 
become  so  accustomed  to  the  bent  position  that  they  retain  it  perma- 
nently. 

Thus,  the  position  taken  during  exercise  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
If  a  person  takes  pulley-weight  exercise  with  the  spine  in  a  forward 
position,  the  ribs  depressed,  and  the  chest  flat,  that  very  exercise  will 


12  ^SXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

tend  to  make  this  position  a  permanent  one;  and  yet  this  is  exactly  the 
position  that  uninstructed  individuals  commonly  take  in  gymnasiums 
when  doing  pulley-weight  work.  Again,  work  on  the  parallel  bars, 
particularly  the  bent-arm  work,  is  usually  taken  with  the  spine  flexed, 
and  with  the  ribs  in  a  depressed  condition,  the  pectorals  being  in  active 
contraction,  as  are  also  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen.  The  tendency  is 
to  perpetuate  in  the  individual  the  form  held  during  the  exercise.  We 
are  all  familiar  with  those  who  have  done  a  great  deal  of  such  parallel 
bar  work,  and  have  observed  the  flatness  of  their  chests  in  spite  of  the 
large  development  of  the  greater  pectorals. 

The  general  effects  of  exercise  are  in  relation  to  the  number  of  foot- 
pounds of  work  performed.  By  the  general  effects  of  exercise  are  meant 
the  effects  upon  the  heart,  lungs,  digestive  organs,  nervous  system,  and 
general  cell-metabolism.  We  shall  not  here  consider  the  eifects  of  ex- 
tended attention,  or  concentration  of  mind;  that  will  come  later  on. 
We  are  now  considering  merely  the  general  effects  of  exercise  upon  the 
body.  I  may  extend  my  index-finger  as  many  times  as  possible,  until 
I  am  thoroughly  exhausted,  without  producing  any  great  effect  upon 
my  heart,  lungs,  or  digestive  organs;  although  I  may  produce  an  effect 
upon  my  nervous  system  from  the  exhaustion  that  would  supervene 
from  excessive  work.  The  exercise  of  so  small  a  muscle  has  compara- 
tively little  effect  upon  the  great  organic  functions  of  the  body.  The 
amount  of  mental  effort  put  into  the  exercise  does  not  appear  to  be 
directly  related  to  the  activity  of  the  heart  and  lungs.  If  I  stoop  down 
and  raise  myself  I  am  not  at  all  fatigued,  but  I  have  done  that  which 
has  an  immediate  effect  upon  the  body  as  a  whole.  The  heart  is  in- 
creased in  action  from  five  to  twenty  beats  in  the  minute,  and  the  breath- 
ing is  accelerated,  even  by  a  single  movement  of  this  character;  there 
has  been  comparatively  little  nervous,  but  a  great  deal  of  muscular,  ex- 
penditure. Such  an  effort  might  be  equal  to  a  hundred  foot-pounds  of 
energy,  whereas  the  most  vigorous  effort  of  my  will  might  not  suffice  to 
perform  a  hundred  foot-pounds  of  work  by  the  contraction  of  the  small 
muscle  referred  to  before — the  extensor  indicis.  In  seeking,  then,  the 
general  effects  of  exercise  upon  the  body,  we  must  exercise  those  groups 
of  muscles  with  which  it  is  easiest  to  perform  large  amounts  of  work. 
These  are  obviously  the  great  muscular  groups  of  the  body — the  flexors 
and  extensors  of  the  thigh,  and  the  muscles  of  the  back,  abdomen,  and 
shoulders.  These  five  groups  include  by  far  the  strongest  muscles  in 
the  body.  Upon  their  exercise  we  must  chiefly  depend  for  effect  upon 
the  vital  organs.  Exercise  of  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  upper  arm 
is  somewhat  effective;  but  so  much  inferior  are  these  muscles  in  size 


EXERCISE    AND    CIRCULATION  13 

and  power  to  the  other  muscles  referred  to,  that  great  reliance  cannot  be 
placed  upon  them.  When  muscles  contract,  we  can  foretell  to  a  nicety 
how  much  effect  there  will  be  upon  the  heart  and  lungs,  if  we  know  the 
number  of  foot-pounds  of  energy  to  be  expended.  This  is  our  most 
valuable  criterion.  Because  of  their  greater  natural  capacity  for  skill, 
as  well  as  because  of  the  more  showy  character  of  their  work,  it  is 
common  in  gymnasiums  to  find  chief  attention  given  to  the  development 
of  the  arm  muscles.  The  fallacy  of  this  is  easily  seen. 

Physiologic  Load. — There  is  a  load  for  each  muscle,  and  for  each 
group  of  muscles,  under  which  it  can  do  its  maximum  of  work.  This 
we  call  its  physiologic  load.  It  is  the  load  under  which  the  greatest 
effect  can  be  produced  upon  the  organism.  If  the  element  of  time  is 
considered,  the  load  must  be  altered  to  correspond.  There  is  thus  a 
physiologic  load  for  each  muscle  for  each  length  of  time.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  muscle  will  contract  more  vigorously  and  effectively 
when  it  is  pulling  a  certain  load  than  it  will  when  contracting  free;  thus, 
the  advantage  of  working  against  a  weight  of  some  kind.  This  weight 
can  usually  be  the  weight  of  the  body  in  some  form  or  another,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  arms,  which  are  not  well  adapted  to  handling  the 
weight  of  the  body.  For  the  arms  we  use  apparatus  in  order  to  bring 
about  this  contraction  under  a  loacITand  the  longer  the  exercise  is  to 
last,  the  lighter  we  make  the  load.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  we  shall 
contract  the  upper  arm  so  many  times;  it  must  contract  under  a  given 
load  in  order  to  secure  the  proper  physiologic  result. 

Exercise  a  Factor  in  Promoting  the  Circulation  of  Fluids  in  the  Body. 
— In  this  respect  it  is  second  only  to  the  contraction  of  the  heart.  In 
the  great  muscle-groups  of  the  body  the  lymph  circulation  is  chiefly 
carried  on  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles.  These  press  upon  the 
lymph-spaces  and  urge  the  lymph  on.  The  circulation  of  blood,  as 
well  as  of  lymph,  in  the  abdominal  organs  is  accelerated  by  exercise  and 
by  deep  breathing.  When  the  diaphragm  makes  large  excursions,  the 
abdominal  organs  are  alternately  pressed  upon  and  released.  The 
valves  in  the  large  veins  are  so  arranged  that  the  fluids  can  only  go  in 
one  direction.  Thus,  it  is  clear  that  the  relation  of  deep  breathing  to 
the  circulation  of  blood  in  these  organs  is  intimate.  This  indicates 
the  great  limitations  imposed  upon  the  health  of  the  abdominal  organs 
by  anything  that  restricts  the  breathing,  and  one  of  the  reasons  why 
deep  breathing  is  so  effective  in  bringing  about  a  state  of  vigor  in  the 
whole  organism.  Deep  breathing  seems  to  increase  the  freedom  with 
which  the  return  flow  of  the  blood  from  the  head  is  effected.  This 
perhaps  is  not  a  major  effect,  but  it  certainly  should  be  reckoned  with. 


14  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

The  quantity  of  oxygen  absorbed — that  is,  taken  from  the  air  of  the 
lungs  into  the  blood  plasma  and  into  the  hemoglobin — varies  in  propor- 
tion to  the  need  of  oxygen  in  the  body  far  more  than  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  air  inhaled  and  exhaled  at  each  breath.  One  may  by  delib- 
erate effort  breathe  with  rapidity  and  amplitude.  The  result  is  that  the 
air  in  the  lungs  is  more  free  from  carborTdioxid  than  is  usual.  This, 
however,  will  not  raise  the  oxygen 'absorption  in  the  body.  The  oxygen 
tension  in  the  blood  plasma  remains  measurably  constant.  The  way 
to  increase  oxygen  absorption  by  the  tissues  is  to  do  work  -that  increases 
the  breaking-down  of  oxygen  compounds.  Thus,  there  is  more  demand 
created  for  oxygen,  deep  breathing  results,  and  this  deep  breathing  is 
effective  in  the  promotion  of  oxygen  absorption.  We  thus  see  the 
fallacy  of  expecting  to  rejuvenate  the  tissues  of  the  body  by  voluntary 
deep  breathing.  Such  deep  breathing  may  have  useful  effect  in  strength- 
ening the  accessory  muscles  of  respiration;  or  by  means  of  the  wide 
excursions  of  the  diaphragm  moving  back  and  forth  the  abdominal 
contents  and  thus  affecting  the  vigor  of  these  organs ;  but  its  usefulness 
is  not  primarily  related  to  increased  absorption  of  oxygen. 

Effort  on  the  part  of  individual  muscles  requires  the  fixation  of  the 
thorax  and  thus  increases  intrathoracic  pressure.  This  effectively  pre- 
vents the  return  of  the  blood  to  the  veins  leading  into  the  thorax,  and 
produces  a  passive  congestion,  which  is  most  noticeable  in  the  head. 
The  staring  eyeballs  of  a  person  making  a  vigorous  effort,  lasting  a 
number  of  seconds,  are  familiar  to  all.  The  filling  up  of  the  great  veins 
in  the  neck  and  head  merely  indicates  the  process  that  is  going  on  all  over 
the  body. 

Agitation  of  the  body  tends  to  accelerate  intestinal  peristalsis  and 
hepatic  circulation.  This  is  noticed  in  the  effect  that  riding  a  hard- 
trotting  horse  has  on  those  of  sedentary  habits.  For  this  reason  run- 
ning is  more  effective  than  bicycling  in  its  effect  upon  the  abdominal 
organs.  Extended  movements  at  the  waist  are  also  effective  in  their 
relation  to  the  abdominal  organs,  the  three  factors  being  as  already 
mentioned:  increased  peristalsis,  increased  circulation  of  contained 
liquids,  stimulation  by  means  of  the  wide  excursions  of  the  diaphragm. 

Position  of  the  Thorax  and  Curve  of  the  Spine  during  Exercise. — When 
the  dorsal  region  of  the  spine  is  flexed,  the  ribs  are  depressed,  the  chest  is 
flat  and  the  amount  of  space  for  the  heart  and  lungs  is  less  than  when  the 
opposite  conditions  obtain;  the  difference  in  the  anteroposterior  diam- 
eter in  the  two  positions  being  often  as  much  as  three-fourths  of  an 
inch.  When  the  trunk  is  thus  cramped,  the  heart  becomes  embarrassed 
and  irregular  during  severe  exercise  far  more  quickly  than  when  the  ribs 


NEUROLOGIC    CONSIDERATIONS  15 

and  spine  are  both  extended.  This  may  be  due  primarily  to  the  inter- 
ference with  respiration  and  circulation.  Another  point  that  has  been 
demonstrated  clinically  is  that  the  flexed  position  of  the  spine  and  the 
depressed  condition  of  the  ribs  are  associated  with  a  less  active  process  of 
digestion  and  feebler  peristaltic  activity.  It  is  thus  of  fundamental 
importance,  when  we  wish  to  secure  the  general  effects  of  exercise  upon 
the  body,  that  such  exercise  be  taken  with  the  spine  in  the  erect  position, 
and  the  ribs  well  everted.  The  tendency  during  much  of  exercise,  unless 
there  is  special  instruction,  is  to  stand  or  sit  in  the  flexed  position.  This 
should  not  be  allowed. 


NEUROLOGIC  CONSIDERATIONS 

Automatic  and  Voluntary  Exercises. — Movements  that  are  made  with 
regularity  and  constant  force  are  soon  taken  in  charge  by  the  lower 
neural  centers.  They  are  directed  by  the  hind-brain,  or  possibly  by  the 
upper  centers  in  the  spinal  cord.  This  frees  not  only  the  upper  motor 
centers,  but  the  seat  of  consciousness,  as  well.  Fatigue  is  more  closely 
related  to  exhaustion  of  these  upper  motor  centers,  or  even  of  the  con- 
sciousness, than  to  exhaustion  of  the  muscle-cell.  Movements  made 
'  automatically  have  far  more  effect  upon  the  body  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  fatigue  they  produce  than  have  those  exercises  demanding 
constant  attention.  The  comparative  fatigue  of  walking  upon  a  smooth 
road  and  upon  railroad  ties  placed  at  uneven  distances  is  a  familiar 
example  of  this  principle.  The  automatic  nerve  apparatus  does  not"" 
become  fatigued  readily.  The  general  effect  upon  the  body,  and  the 
effects  upon  the  muscle-cells,  the  digestive  organs,  the  organs  of  circu- 
lation and  respiration,  etc.,  are,  however,  not  affected  by  the  source 
of  the  neural  stimulus  to  muscular  contraction — they  are  the  same 
whether  the  exercises  be  automatic  or  voluntary.  A  typical  example 
of  a  rhythmic  exercise  is  bicycling  at  a  moderate  gait  over  a  reasonably 
smooth  road  after  one  has  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  riding.  The 
somatic  effect  of  the  exercise  is  the  same  as  when  one  is  riding  in  a  narrow 
track,  but  in  the  latter  case  constant  attention  is  demanded  and  fatigue 
rapidly  supervenes.  Thus,  physicians  who  have  to  do  with  individuals 
who  are,  as  a  whole,  in  need  of  muscular  exercise,  but  who  are  already 
partially  exhausted  neurally,  often  have  occasion  to  make  large  use  of 
rhythmic  exercises. 

The  relation  between  neural  and  muscular  expenditure  is  not  con- 
stant. Every  increase  in  rapidity  of  movement  calls  for  proportionally 
more  neural  energy  than  muscular  energy.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  a 


l6  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

person  starting  in  the  hundred-yard  dash:  the  waiting  with  attention 
strained  for  the  pistol-shot,  and  then  the  immense  rapidity  of  the  start, 
demand  more  neural  energy  many  times  over  than  does  getting  up  the 
same  degree  of  speed  more  slowly.  It  also  demands,  of  course,  more 
muscular  energy  to  overcome  inertia,  but  the  neural  demands  are  far 
greater  in  proportion  than  are  the  muscular  demands.  One  starting  a 
number  of  times  in  succession  may  become  so  fatigued  that  the  hands 
will  tremble  violently  when  the  muscles  are  still  comparatively  fresh. 
This  is  exceedingly  important  in  the  application  of  so-called  calisthenic 
drills.  When  one  wishes  the  individual  to  follow  the  commands  of  the 
leader  the  instant  they  are  given,  a  far  higher  degree  of  attention  is  de- 
manded than  when  he  may  follow  more  slowly.  A  teacher  of  gymnas- 
tics who  is  anxious  that  his  class  shall  present  a  creditable  appearance 
will  constantly  insist  that  the  commands  shall  be  followed  instantly. 
This  is  unfortunate  for  the  pupil  who  already  has  the  least  tendency  to 
neural  fatigue.  It  is  harder,  too,  on  adults  or  the  middle-aged  than  on 
young  persons,  because  reaction-time  is  slower  in  the  former  classes. 
After  a  drill  or  a  set  of  exercises  has  been  memorized  so  perfectly  that 
conscious  attention  is  no  longer  needed,  the  conditions,  of  course,  have 
changed ;  but  pupils  in  the  gymnasium  do  not  usually  reach  this  condition. 
For  this  reason,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  general  effects  of  exercise, 
it  is  important  that  there  shall  not  be  great  haste  in  the  following  of 
commands,  and  indeed  it  is  preferable  that  there  be  but  few  commands, 
but  that  the  work  be  done  largely  by  imitation;  that  being  the  more 
direct,  simple,  and  neurally  least  expensive,  form  of  instruction.  In 
recommending  patients  to  take  exercise  in  gymnasiums,  great  care  should 
be  taken  as  to  the  character  of  the  teaching  with  reference  to  these 
points.  When  the  patient  is  primarily  deficient  in  muscular  strength 
or  digestive  ability,  but  has  no  tendency  toward  neurasthenia,  the  in- 
dications do  not  preclude  the  utilization  of  exercises  made  upon  com- 
mand. But  in  the  far  more  common  cases  among  urban  residents,  in 
which  there  is  a  tendency  to  nervous  exhaustion,  exercises  of  this  char- 
acter are  usually,  if  not  always,  injurious.  I  have  seen  many  patients 
injured  rather  than  benefited  by  them. 

Moderate  and  Excessive  Exercise. — Another  consideration  in  the 
comparison  of  neural  and  muscular  expenditure  involved  in  a  given 
exercise  relates  to  the  effect  of  moderate  as  compared  with  extreme 
activity.  The  law  will  not  hold  in  regard  to  extremely  light  loads;  but 
leaving  the  latter  out  of  consideration,  the  larger  the  muscular  load,  the 
greater  the  comparative  nervous  effort  in  the  expenditure  involved.  It 
is  true  that  even  the  mechanical  effect  of  lifting  25  pounds  one  foot  twice, 


EFFECT    OF    EXERCISE    ON    BRAIN    STRUCTURE  17 

is  not  quite  the  same  as  that  of  lifting  50  pounds  one  foot  once,  and 
hence  the  effects  upon  the  muscle-cells  and  the  viscera  differ  in  these  two 
cases.  But  there  is  a  still  greater  difference  in  the  effects  upon  the 
nervous  system.  More  neural  energy  is  demanded  to  cause  the  muscles 
to  contract  once  with  the  5o-pound  load  than  to  contract  twice  with 
the  2 5 -pound  load.  This  matter  is  therefore  important  with  reference 
to  the  same  class  of  persons  mentioned  under  the  preceding  head.  They 
should  be  given  moderately  heavy  work,  but  of  sufficient  duration  to 
accomplish  the  result,  rather  than  be  made  to  accomplish  results  with 
a  few  large  efforts.  A  common  and  useful  test  is  to  notice  the 'hands 
when  held  with  fingers  extended  and  free  from  each  other,  the  arm  being 
held  away  from  the  body.  If  the  fingers  are  trembling,  there  has  prob- 
ably been  4oo  much  effort.  One  may  do  considerable  work,  in  small 
doses,  without  producing  this  effect;  but  even  a  moderate  quantity  of 
work  in  one  or  two  large  doses  will  quickly  induce  it,  and  it  is  then  often  / 
followed  by  sleeplessness  and  indigestion. 

Of  how  much  importance  is  physical  exercise  in  the  development  of 
the  brain?  From  one- third  to  one-half  of  the  brain  surface  is  concerned 
in  making  muscles  contract,  definite  areas  being  in  relation  with  definite 
muscles  or  groups  of  muscles;  but  this  does  not  prevent  these  parts  of 
the  brain  from  being  used  in  other  ways  also.  Although  we  know  but 
little  about  the  function  of  the  different  portions  of  the  brain,  we  do 
know  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  muscular  exercise  of  any  group  of 
muscles,  if  the  corresponding  nerve-center  is  to  be  developed.  Careful 
examinations  have  been  made  of  the  brains  of  subjects  who  had  very  early  / 
lost  a  limb,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  the  brain-centers  normally  active 
in  the  management  of  the  muscles  of  the  amputated  limb  were  never 
developed.  Hence,  if  the  full  development  of  the  entire  motor  area  of 
the  brain  is  to  be  achieved,  the  muscular  functions  of  the  body  must  be 
exercised  to  their  full  capacity.  Not  merely  must  each  muscle  become 
powerful,  but  the  faculties  of  co-ordination  and  control  must  be  devel- 
oped. These  appear  to  be  even  more  closely  related  with  the  finer 
organization  of  the  nerve-structure,  than  is  the  exhibition  of  power. 

There  are  some  nerve-centers  having  to  do  with  muscular  con- 
traction that  ripen,  without  ever  having  the  subordinate  muscles  in 
active  operation;  for  instance,  the  respiratory  center.  The  new-born 
babe  finds  its  respiratory  apparatus,  neural  and  muscular,  in  perfect 
condition  for  operation.  It  may  be  that  when  a  sufficient  number  of 
thousands  of  years  have  passed,  the  whole  brain  will  be  in  the  condition 
in  which  the  respiratory  and  a  few  of  the  other  brain-centers  are  now. 
Physical  education  then  will  be  nil,  and  we  shall  look  to  physical  exer- 


ig  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

cise  merely  as  a  hygienic  measure  to  insure  health,  all  the  neuromuscular 
mechanisms  ripening  and  coming  into  perfect  function  through  the  in- 
heritance from  countless  generations  of  ancestors.  At  the  present  dayr 
however,  varied  muscular  exercise  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  the 
development  of  the  brain ;  and  upon  the  right  development  of  the  brain 
is  dependent  the  large  bulk  of  our  psychic  activities. 
X^HFatigue. — The  subject  of  fatigue  must  interest  all  physical  trainers. 
Muscular  fatigue,  as  we  usually  speak  of  it,  is  our  consciousness  of  the 
.partial  exhaustion  of  the  motor  centers  controlling  the  rrfuscles  that  have 
been  worked.  In  ordinary  life  we  do  not  often  experience  genuine 
fatigue  of  the  muscle-cell ;  but  this  is  not  the  only  form  of  fatigue.  When 
certain  brain-centers  are  fatigued,  we  can  then  turn  to  other  centers, 
centers  concerned  with  other  muscular  groups,  and  operate  them.  When 
these  in  turn  are  fatigued,  we  can  call  on  still  others;  but  long  before 
there  comes  the  exhaustion  of  the  motor  elements  for  all  the  muscles, 
there  is  another  fatigue  that  supervenes,  so  that  muscles  that  have  not 
been  concerned  in  the  activity  cannot  be  operated  with  either  power  or 
accuracy.  This  is  not  due  merely  to  the  presence  in  the  circulation  of 
the  'fatigue  stuffs'  produced  by  the  exhausted  muscles  or  by  their  nerve- 
centers,  although  this  is  undoubtedly  an  element.  If  we  call  this  will 
fatigue,  it  then  becomes  of  importance  to  find  the  point  in  the  training 
of  the  muscular  system  at  which  the  maximum  of  benefit  to  the  physical 
organism  can  be  secured  without  appreciably  lessening  the  power  of 
the  individual  as  shown  by  his  ability  to  will.  It  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  there  is  no  form  of  exertion  so  exhausting  as  emotional 
activity.  Excitement  and  worry  are  prime  factors  in  the  production  of 
exhaustion.  We  shall  consider  later  on — in  the  detailed  study  of 
various  exercises — their  emotional  aspect;  thus,  the  difference  in  effect 
of  an  exercise  such  as  sparring  when  it  is  done  face  to  face  with  an  op- 
ponent, and  when  the  movements  are  done  alone.  We  shall  leave  the 
consideration  of  this  point  for  treatment  at  that  time. 

Co-operation  among  Contiguous  Nerve-centers. — One  of  the  most 
potent  arguments  for  a  large  amount  of  exercise  during  young  manhood 
is  that  nerve-centers  may  draw  power  from  neighboring  nerve-centers. 
Conversely,  it  has  been  shown  that  exhaustion  of  contiguous  motor 
areas  may  come  through  the  efforts  of  a  single  center  so  small  as  that 
governing  the  flexor  indicis,  if  tins  activity  be  kefrt^up  long  enough.  All 
are  familiar  with  the  fact  that  extreme  exhaustion  in  one  line  inca- 
pacitates us  in  others.  This  may  be  partially  explained  oifthe  ground 
of  fatigue  stuffs  being  poured  into  the  blood-current;  but  the  far  more 
rapid  recovery  of  animals  when  these  fatigue  stuffs  have  been  produced 


f 

t 


*/ 

RELATION    OF    EXERCISE    TO    DEVELOPMENT  IQ 

outside  the  body  and  then  injected  than  when  mey  have  been  produced 
in  the  body,  would  be  in  line  with  the  clinical  observation  already 
mentioned.  Thus,  we  see  the  great  importance  of  the  thorough  develop- 
ment of  the  motor  area  of  the  brain.  Men  of  intellectual  ability  may 
not  have  well-developed  muscular  systems;  but  it  is  rather  unusual  to 
find  men  of  extended  intellectual  capacity  for  work  during  many  years 
who  have  not  during  adolescence  engaged  in  vigorous  and  extended  exer- 
cise. The  motor  brain  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  battery  furnishing  power 
for  intellectual  labor;  but  it  furnishes  endurance  rather  than  force.  The 
natural  interests  of  young  men  in  exercises  of  an  extreme  character 
would  indicate  to  us  that  there  is  some  organic  need  of  such  exercise 
during  these  years,  for  we  cannot  think  of  such  instincts  having  arisen 
spontaneously ;  they  must  have  arisen  by  natural  selection  and  therefore 
meet  a  demand  in  the  individual. 

The  kind  of  exercise  demanded  during  the  succeeding  years  of  the 
life  of  an  individual  must  be  related  to  his  changing  characteristics 
throughout  these  years.  In  recommending  exercise  of  the  neuromuscular 
apparatus  from  the  standpoint  of  motor  education,  we  must  first  ask  the 
question:  What  is  the  condition  of  this  apparatus?  We  know  that  the 
brain,  spinal  cord,  and  muscles  of  the  new-born  infant  are  in  a  far 
different  condition  from  those  of  the  adult.  We  know  that  its  capacity 
for  muscular  activity  not  only  differs  from  that  of  the  adult  in  power, 
but  even  more  so  in  control.  The  comparatively  recent  efforts  of  the 
neurologists  have,  however,  given  us  ample  ground  for  procedure;  al- 
though, hitherto,  the  physical  trainers  have  taken  but  small  notice  of 
this  most  important  series  of  facts. 

The  general  order  of  development  of  the  motor  centers  seems  to  be  as 
follows:  first,  are  developed  those  that  have  to  do  with  functions  already 
reasonably  perfect  at  birth — respiration,  circulation,  sucking,  crying, 
and  other  movements  that  need  no  particular  training.  The  motor 
centers  for  the  control  of  the  skeletal  muscles  develop  in  the  order  of 
their  distance  from  the  trunk;  thus,  shoulder  before  elbow,  elbow  before 
wrist,  wrist  before  fingers.  There  is  some  overlapping,  but  in  the  main 
the  progression  is  of  this  character.  At  birth  the  child  has  perfect 
grasping  movements,  but  the  independent  control  of  the  fingers  comes 
comparatively  late.  It  is  not  done  with  readiness  until  after  seven  in 
most  children.  This  order  of  development  is  merely  that  shown  in 
general  by  embryologic  investigations.  -Those  movements  that  are 
racially  the  most  elementary  or  the  most  early,  come  first  in  the  individ- 
ual. The  interest  that  the  child  shows  in  special  forms  of  activity  is  an 
excellent  guide  to  the  order  of  development  of  the  motor  activities. 


20  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

This  order  of  development  of  the  nervous  system  is  important  with 
reference  to  educational  gymnastics,  because  otherwise  they  are  ab- 
normal. Nothing  but  disaster  can  be  expected  if  we  attempt  to  force 
motor  education  out  of  its  natural  order.  The  education  of  any  part  is 
best  done  when  that  part  is  ripening.  If  this  is  accomplished,  the  part 
may  be  further  perfected  at  any  time  during  later  life.  If  it  is  not 
accomplished,  the  part  can  never  be  made  to  reach  its  highest  develop- 
ment by  later  education.  The  development  of  the  motor  areas  for  the 
trunk  takes  place  during  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  life.  The  arms 
and  legs  are  pretty  well  under  control  at  the  age  of  five  or  six%  The 
interest  of  boys  in  marbles;  in  all  forms  of  machinery;  in  throwing,  shoot- 
ing and  similar  exercises,  indicates  the  growth  of  the  finer  motor  areas 
between  the  years  of  seven  and  twelve.  The  interest  of  girls  during  the 
same  years  in  sewing  and  playing  with  dolls,  which  involve  the  finer 
activities,  is  an  indication  in  a  similar  direction.  The  activity  of  the 
speech  center  begins  early,  but  has  its  greater  development  within  the 
first  three  or  four  years.  When  special  attention  is  given  to  specific 
exercises  demanding  skill  in  distal  groups  of  muscles  before  the  more  prox- 
imal muscles  have  been  trained,  we  often  find  neuroses  supervening. 
Dr.  Hartwell  has  made  extended  studies  in  regard  to  stammering  and 
stuttering  in  this  relation.  In  former  days  those  destined  for  a  musical 
career  were  put  at  their  special  work — for  instance,  on  the  violin — at  as 
early  an  age  as  four;  but  experience  has  shown  that  such  education 
ought  not  to  be  begun  until  the  child  is  seven  or  eight  years  of  age. 
This  experience  is  in  accord  with  the  neurologic  fact  just  mentioned,  that 
the  motor  centers  for  the  fingers  and  wrist  begin  to  acquire  special 
activity  after  the  age  of  eight  years.  The  selection  of  voluntary  exercises 
for  the  development  of  this  neuromuscular  mechanism  ought,  then,  to 
be  practically  completed  before  the  boy  or  girl  reaches  the  teens,  for 
the  apparatus  is  pretty  well  developed  by  that  time.  Gymnastics,  so 
called,  affect  chiefly  the  larger  groups  of  muscles.  The  finer  groups 
concerned  in  independent  finger  movements,  activities  of  the  larynx, 
facial  and  tongue  movements,  are  not  trained  by  gymnastics;  their  exer- 
cise must  of  necessity  come  in  other  ways.  The  playing  of  games  of 
children,  as  we  shall  see  later  on,  involves  the  discipline  of  these  motor 
centers;  thus,  gymnastics  to  be  of  the  greatest  educational  value  ought 
to  come  during  the  first  three  or  four  years,  or  at  least  the  first  six  or 
seven  years,  of  the  child's  life;  but  for  many  reasons  it  is  obviously  ab- 
surd to  attempt  to  have  children  during  these  years  do  gymnastic  work. 
We  are  thus  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  primary  object  of  gym- 
nastic exercises,  such  as  are  prevalent  in  our  gymnasiums,  cannot  be 


PSYCHIC    EFFECTS    OF    EXERCISE  21 

solely  that  of  neuromuscular  education,  and  that  for  this  process  of 
education  we  must  depend  upon  other  agencies  than  voluntary  gym- 
nasium work. 

Muscular  Exercise  and  Cerebral  Hygiene. — As  we  have  seen,  the  ab- 
sorption of  oxygen  by  the  blood  plasma  and  the  digestion  of  foods  are 
both  related  to  muscular  activity.  The  constitution  of  the  blood,  then, 
is  related  definitely  to  muscular  activity.  The  power  of  the  heart  and 
the  healthy  tone  of  the  arterial  system  are  both  related  to  the  quantity 
of  muscular  exercise.  These  points  have  much  to  do  with  normal, 
healthy  cerebral  activity.  A  vigorous  heart,  a  respiratory  system  that 
performs  its  functions  effectively,  digestive  organs  that  keep  the  blood 
rich  in  tissue-forming  and  energy -expending  elements,  form  the  material 
basis  for  cerebral  health. 

Muscular  Exercise  and  Vasomotor  Hygiene. — The  vasomotor  system  \ 
has  been  called  the  hub  around  which  organic  life  revolves.  The  control 
of  the  blood-supply  of  the  body  appears  to  govern  not  only  activity,  but 
emotion  as  well.  The  vasomotor  system  appears  to  be  the  basis  of  the 
emotional  nature,  bearing  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  emotions  that 
the  brain  does  to  intellect.  This  is  in  accord  with  the  observed  facts 
that  insanities  are  prone  to  begin  with  perverted  feelings,  and  that  the 
wild  delusions  of  religious  devotees,  hallucinations,  and  the  like  are  more 
frequently  found  among  those  who  have  not  had  vigorous  muscular 
exercise  than  among  those  that  have  had  such  exercise.  A  balanced 
activity  of  the  vasomotor  system  is  secured  only  when  it  is  called  on  for . 
its  normal  functions  in  connection  with  the  regulation  of  the  blood-flow 
to  muscles  in  vigorous  use.  In  those  who  take  but  little  muscular  exer- 
cise the  vasomotor  system  is  far  more  liable  to  irregularities.  One  who 
does  mental  work  and  neglects  to  take  exercise  is  likely  to  have  cold 
hands  and  feet.  Sane  notions  in  regard  to  daily  activities  are  thus  re- 
lated to  a  vigorous  functioning  and  balance  of  the  vasomotor  system. 

Muscular  contraction  appears  to  be  closely  related  to  the  genesis  of 
many  forms  of  psychic  activity.  Not  only  do  the  vasomotor  and  mus- 
cular systems  express  the  thinking,  feeling,  and  willing  of  the  individual, 
but  the  muscular  apparatus  itself  appears  to  be  a  fundamental  part  of  j 
the  apparatus  for  these  psychic  states.  Without  the  muscular  system, 
the  necessary  material  for  psychic  activity  cannot  be  provided.  The 
three  processes  of  thinking,  feeling,  and  willing  are  more  or  less  closely 
connected  with  a  rehearsal,  both  neural  and  muscular,  of  the  acts  by 
which  the  original  material  for  the  mental  process  came  in.  As  G.  Stan- 
ley Hall  puts  it:  "We  think  in  terms  of  muscular  action,  more  or  less 
remote,  and  all  the  parts  that  were  concerned  in  the  original  activities 


22  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

are  more  or  less  active  in  the  thought.  Nerve  currents  are  constantly 
going  to  the  muscles  and  coming  from  sense  organs,  all  being  a  part  of 
the  thinking  apparatus."  If  this  be  true,  the  fulness  of  the  neuromus- 
cular  experiences  during  early  life  would  appear  to  be  related  to  the 
opportunity  for  later  psychic  range.  This  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that 
both  in  animals  and  in  men  the  scale  of  intelligence  corresponds  to  the 
number  of  possible  muscular  co-ordinations.  The  more  complicated  the 
neuromuscular  apparatus,  the  higher  the  intelligence.  It  is  true  that 
the  individual  profits  mainly  by  racial  inheritance  of  all  these  compli- 
cated mechanisms ;  but  even  so  we  may  expect  to  find  that  the  individuals 
who  live  a  life  of  psychic  activity  have  been,  on  the  whole,  those  who 
'during  early  life  have  had  a  rich  and  full  experience  of  muscular  co- 
ordinations. It  is  not  difficult  to  perform  a  few  simple  experiments  to 
illustrate  this  point.  If  one  repeats  the  alphabet  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
it  takes  about  four  seconds.  If,  now,  one  thinks  the  repetition  of  the 
alphabet,  but  without  making  any  muscular  movements,  it  takes  approx- 
imately the  same  length  of  time.  During  the  severe  effort  to  repeat  as 
rapidly  as  possible  one  becomes  conscious  that  the  mechanism  involved 
is  the  same  as  when  repetition  is  actually  done.  One  can  feel  the  latent 
movement — if  I  may  use  the  expression — of  the  larynx,  lips,  and  tongue. 
To  think  the  alphabet  in  terms  of  writing,  takes  about  the  same  length 
of  time  that  it  actually  does  to  write  it.  Thus,  the  speed  of  muscular 
movements  is  related  definitely  to  the  speed  of  our  thinking;  and 
this  rule,  moreover,  is  one  of  those  that  "work  both  ways."  It  is  not, 
however,  merely  in  reference  to  the  intellect  that  the  muscular  system  is 
important.  The  sensibilities,  or  feelings,  or  emotions  ar$  definitely 
related  both  to  muscular  and  to  visceral  states.  We  are  accustomed  to 
think  of  the  expression  of  the  body,  particularly  the  expression  of  the 
face,  as  merely  the  outward  manifestation  of  the  inward  state.  The 
modern  psychology,  however,  is  telling  us  that  this  muscular  contraction 
is  a  necessary  part  of  the  feeling  itself,  and  that  when  the  muscular  ex- 
pression of  the  feeling  can  be  inhibited,  the  feeling  itself  is  not  the  same. 
Rage  is  not  rage  until  it  expresses  itself  in  muscular  action  of  some  form. 
It  may  be  merely  in  the  stiffening  of  the  whole  body,  the  clinching  of  the 
hands,  or  the  forcible  compression  of  the  jaws.  When  we  come  to  the 
regal  faculty,  the  will,  modern  psychology  again  asserts  that  will  must 
express  itself  in  terms  of  muscular  activity,  and  that  power  of  the  will 
in  its  origin  bears  a  relation  to  firmness  of  muscle,  to  power  of  muscular 
contraction. 


UNIVERSITY 


SPECIALIZATION    IN    EXERCIS 


SPECIALIZATION 

One  of  the  natural  tendencies  of  boys,  girls,  and  young  men  is  to 
specialize  in  certain  forms  of  interesting  muscular  activity  rather  than  to 
take  exercise  that  symmetrically  develops  the  whole  body.  This  is  per- 
haps best  shown  by  the  college  athlete,  who  not  only  specializes  in  base- 
ball but  even  in  a  single  position  on  the  nine;  or  he  may  specialize  in 
pole-vaulting,  throwing  the  hammer,  running  the  mile,  or  any  other 
of  the  numerous  athletic  events.  In  the  gymnasium  he  may  specialize 
in  any  single  group  of  muscular  performances,  although  these  are  not  so 
attractive  to  the  average  man.  There  has  been  far  more  condemnation 
of  such  specialization,  together  with  pointing  out  of  its  evil  results,  than 
there  has  been  critical  study  of  its  nature  and  advantages.  In  the  light 
of  evolution  it  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  such  general  interest  should 
have  arisen  without  there  being  some  useful  element  in  it.  The  argument 
relative  to  the  place  of  specialization  in  physical  training  can  only  be 
constructed  upon  the  general  place  of  specialization  in  evolution.  Spe-  . 
cialization  is  at  the  root  of  all  evolution.  It  is  only  when  the  early  forms 
of  animal  and  vegetable  life  begin  to  set  apart  cells  for  special  activity 
that  they  begin  to  rise  in  the  scale  of  efficiency  and  intelligence.  Certain 
groups  of  cells  that  have  been  specially  developed  for  the  performance  of 
certain  actions  perform  these  actions-  far  more  efficiently  than  would 
otherwise  be  possible.  This  is  to  the  advantage  of  the  organism  as  a 
whole.  For  this  reason  we  find  a  constantly  increasing  specialization 
going  on  in  the  human  body.  The  various  tissues  are  made  up  of  cells 
that  have  become  so  highly  differentiated  from  the  elementary  form, 
which  has  been  most  faithfully  preserved  by  the  amoeba,  that  it  is  with 
difficulty  they  are  recognized  as  its  descendants  ;  but  all  of  them  are  merely 
emphasizing  certain  functions  that  were  common  to  the  original  cells. 
This  is  no  less  true  of  the  contractile  muscle-cells  than  of  the  co- 
ordinating brain-cells,  or  the  connective-tissue  cells.  Thus,  the  whole 
development  of  the  individual  has  been  related  to  specialization.  This 
holds  not  only  with  reference  to  the  body,  but  with  reference  to  the 
development  of  intelligence  and  feeling.  The  individual  as  a  whole 
also  tends  to  specialize.  It  has  been  the  common  practice  among 
physical  trainers  to  endeavor  to  overcome  this  natural  tendency 
toward  specialization.  It  has  been  said  that  the  left  arm  should  be 
trained  to  be  as  strong  and  as  skilful  in  every  way  as  is  the  right  arm. 
The  practice  that  has  been  given  to  the  perfecting  of  the  right  arm  in 
penmanship,  in  playing  the  violin,  in  working  with  machinery,  and  in 
all  directions  that  demand  skill,  must  now  be  divided  by  two,  in  order 


24  EXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

that  the  left  arm  shall  be  as  well  trained  as  is  the  right.  But  even  this 
would  not  accomplish  its  end,  because  in  most  persons  the  neural  appara- 
tus governing  the  left  side  of  the  body  does  not  have  the  capacity  of  the 
right-hand  side  for  finer  organization.  The  ages  of  evolution  have 
brought  to  man  as  compared  with  woman  special  ability  for  throwing. 
I  have  repeatedly  endeavored  to  train  the  left  side  of  the  body  to  throw 
a  ball  as  readily  as  does  the  right  hand ;  but  even  with  the  best  training 
the  ordinary  man  will  still  throw  with  his  left  hand  in  the  same  way  that 
a  woman  does  with  her  right  hand.  But,  even  if  we  should  succeed  in 
the  endeavor  to  perfect  the  left  hand  correspondingly  to  the  right,  what 
would  be  the  gain?  It  would  be  at  a  large  cost  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
right  hand.  The  individual  as  a  whole  would  not  be  more  healthy  or 
more  efficient.  He  would  have  two  members  both  able  to  do  the  same 
thing,  and  yet  rarely  has  he  need  for  but  one  of  them  at  a  time.  This 
illustration  must  suffice  to  indicate  some  of  the  limitations  of  the  useful- 
ness of  all-round  training. 

The  Limits  of  Specialization. — The  limit  of  specialization  in  the  cells 
of  the  body  is  easily  seen.  The  nutritive  ability  of  the  cell  must  never 
be  interfered  with.  Any  other  function  or  every  other  function  may  be 
altered  or  largely  lost  through  specialization;  but  the  ability  to  convert 
inert  matter  into  proper  cell-substance  must  be  retained  by  every  cell 
that  continues  to  live,  and  the  highest  degree  of  specialization  is  inti- 
mately concerned  with  this  fundamental  organic  requirement  for  life. 
We  find  this  same  fundamental  organic  need  conserved  in  the  specializa- 
tion of  the  individual  as  a  whole.  Any  degree  of  specialization  that  does 
not  violate  this  fundamental  condition  of  nutrition,  does  not  seem  to 
be  at  variance  with  the  best  needs  of  the  organism  as  a  whole. 

In  what  ways  may  specialization  in  athletics  or  gymnastics  interfere 
with  this  fundamental,  nutritive  ability  of  the  organism?  It  may  inter- 
fere with  the  respiration,  so  that  the  blood  is  not  kept  free  from  carbon 
dioxid,  and  the  tissues  of  the  body  rapidly  degenerate  because  not  sup- 
plied sufficiently  with  oxygen.  Thus,  specialization  which  leads  to  the 
breathing  of  bad  air,  or  to  faulty  positions  of  the  thorax,  violates  our 
fundamental  condition.  Specialization  that  interferes  with  the  circula- 
tion by  producing  hypertrophy  or  irregular  action  of  the  heart,  such  as 
we  find  when  that  organ  is  compelled  to  work  under  pressure,  likewise 
violates  our  fundamental  condition.  When  the  energy  of  the  system  is 
drafted  off  to  such  an  extent  through  muscular  channels  that  the  more 
fundamental  centers,  which  have  to  do  with  organic  life,  are  deficient  in 
power,  a  condition  of  asthenia  supervenes  that  is  not  to  be  tolerated. 
This  we  often  find  in  individuals  who  have  been  overtrained.  But  when 


SOMATIC    HARMONY  25 

these  fundamental  conditions  are  conserved,  when  the  specialization 
does  not  interfere  with  respiration,  circulation,  digestion,  or  the  control 
of  the  organic  life  through  the  nervous  system,  it  is  not  only  harmless 
but  eminently  desirable. 

Somatic  Harmony. — Bodily  symmetry  is  not  so  desirable  as  bodily 
harmony.  The  body  is  symmetrical  when  the  two  halves  are  precisely 
alike  in  form  and  function.  This  we  never  find;  even  the  two  sides  of 
the  face  are  different ;  the  two  sides  of  the  brain  are  different ;  the  limbs 
are  never  precisely  alike,  and  in  function  they  vary  even  more  than  they 
do  in  structure.  The  most  perfect  statues  are  non-symmetrical.  Fig-/ 
ures  of  faces  in  which  the  two  sides  are  made  exactly  alike  appear  to  be 
lifeless.  Differentiation  even  here  has  its  fundamental  significance. 
Harmony  exists  when  the  different  parts  are  so  related  to  one  another 
as  to  produce  a  whole  in  which  each  part  is  exactly  adapted  to  perfect 
co-operation  with  every  other  part.  This  is  the  highest  ideal. 

If  one  attempts  to  judge  any  form  of  athletics  with  reference  to  this 
standard,  one  must  ask,  first,  Does  it  violate  any  of  the  fundamental  con- 
ditions of  organic  life?  or,  to  put  the  question  positively  and  more  fairly, 
Does  it  favor  the  fundamental  conditions,  the  fundamental  necessities  of 
respiration,  circulation,  nutrition,  and  nerve  action?  If  it  favors  these, 
it  is  useful  from  the  physical  standpoint.  If  at  the  same  time,  it  interests 
the  individual,  it  is  probably  useful  from  a  psychic  standpoint.  It  is  a 
matter  of  comparative  indifference  that  a  man  should  always  jump  from 
the  left  foot,  or  that  he  should  use  his  tennis  racket  with  the  right  hand, 
or  that  he  should  always  do  the  wolf  vault  to  the  right  and  the  flank 
vault  to  the  left.  These  activities  do  not  interfere  with  the  organic 
necessities  of  life,  and  they  do  favor  the  contraction  and  relaxation  of 
muscles  which  we  have  seen  to  be  associated  with  healthful  living. 
Exercises  that  do  interfere  with  the  somatic  life  must  be  avoided,  as 
has  been  already  pointed  out.  To  make  the  left  arm  equal  in  measure- 
ments to  the  right  may  not  even  please  the  esthetic  sense,  it  certainly  is 
but  little  related  to  health  and  vigor ;  but  to  put  the  thorax  in  that  con- 
dition in  which  the  heart  and  lungs  shall  operate  most  freely  is  a  matter 
of  the  greatest  importance.  To  keep  the  spine  in  that  position  in  which 
the  abdominal  organs  shall  all  be  maintained  in  normal  site  and  relation 
is  also  of  great  concern,  and  yet  in  past  years  we  have  given  far  more 
attention  to  the  mere  matter  of  equalizing  muscular  measurements  or 
muscular  strengths,  and  but  secondary  attention  to  the  larger  matters 
which  are  related  to  the  somatic  life  ©f  the  individual. 

To  state  the  case  concretely:  A  man  may  specialize  in  any  form  of 
gymnastics  or  athletics  that  he  pleases,  so  long  as  a  judicious  balance  is  " 


26  EXERCISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

maintained  between  the  various  nutritive  functions  of  the  body.  Good 
respiration,  good  circulation,  good  digestion,  healthy  but  not  extreme 
nervous  activity,  are  the  desiderata,  and  will  be  considered  more  in 
detail  later  on.  To  illustrate  now  by  undesirable  specialization:  we 
should  prohibit  exclusive  specialization  in  such  exercises  as  the  hundred- 
yard  dash,  pole-vaulting,  running  high  or  running  broad  jumping;  and 
v'in  work  on  parallel  bar,  horizontal  bar,  and  like  forms  of  activity.  The 
former  group  of  exercises  calls  for  too  much  nervous  expenditure,  and 
not  enough  of  steady  exercise;  while  the  latter  calls  for  development  of 
the  shoulders  at  the  expense  of  the  parts  below  the  hips,  and  fails  to 
provide  sufficient  respiratory  exercise,  the  result  being  a  lack  of  develop- 
ment of  both  circulatory  and  respiratory  systems. 

Competition. — One  of  the  evils  most  commonly  decried  in  connection 
with  athletics  is  excess  in  competition.  A  judicious  balance  must  be 
observed  here.  When  the  individual  is  suffering  from  any  form  of  ner- 
vous exhaustion,  competition  is  unqualifiedly  bad;  for  it  increases  the 
nervous  expenditure  in  ways  already  indicated,  but  to  a  heightened 
extent.  When  it  is  for  other  than  neural  purposes  that  the  individual 
is  to  exercise,  competition  may  form  a  stimulus  that  will  maintain  in- 
terest for  long  periods  in  work  which  otherwise  would  be  dropped.  Thus, 
sparring  or  bowling  can  sometimes  be  relied  on  for  exercise  when  other 
equally  valuable  forms  are  not  sufficiently  attractive  to  the  individual 
to  induce  him  to  persevere  in  them.  A  moderate  degree  of  competition 
will  help  rather  than  hinder  the  ordinary  man.  The  extreme  competitions 
such  as  are  seen  in  intercollegiate  contests,  cannot  be  defended  upon 
physiologic  grounds;  for  overexertion  is  far  more  common  in  such  con- 
nection than  in  any  other  related  to  physical  training. 

Dosage. — Only  general  considerations  need  to  be  discussed.  Exercise 
is  too  severe  for  the  best  results  to  be  achieved  if  the  performer  does  not 
completely  recover  from  the  incident  fatigue  during  the  subsequent 
night.  The  more  nearly  normal  and  vigorous  the  condition  of  the  pa- 
tient, the  larger  and  more  infrequent  may  be  the  dosage;  the  less  habitu- 
ated to  exercise,  the  smaller  and  the  more  frequent  the  dose. 

It  is  my  practice,  when  working  for  the  general  vigor  of  a  patient 
who  is  entirely  under  my  direction,  to  divide  the  daily  exercise  into  five 
or  six  doses.  Each  period  has  exercise  of  some  particular  type,  although 
all  are  related  to  the  requirement  of  general  somatic  vigor  rather  than 
to  any  technical  skill.  On  rising,  fifteen  minutes  of  deep  breathing  exer- 
cises are  often  taken.  The  patient  lies  flat  on  the  floor  and  breathes  as 
deeply  as  possible  ten  times,  then  rests  ten  seconds.  This  is  repeated 
four  or  five  times.  Then  with  each  inhalation  the  arms  are  raised  to  a 


EXERCISES    FOR    GENERAL    VIGOR  27 

line  through  the  shoulders.  This  tends  to  help  the  lateral  expansion  of 
the  chest  (Fig.  i).  The  same  number  of  movements  is  carried  out  as 
in  the  former  case.  After  this  the  arms  are  raised  vertically,  which 
assists  inspiration,  and,  as  before,  the  movements  are  repeated  four, 
five,  or  six  times  (Fig.  2).  The  arm  movements  give  the  variety 
necessary  to  avoid  tedium.  The  total  effect  of  such  a  group  of  exercises 
is  considerable,  and  unless  the  patient  is  already  vigorous,  his  muscles 
will  be  rendered  sore.  One  should  ordinarily  begin  with  a  quarter  of 


FIG.     i. — EXERCISE  TO  WIDEN  THE  CHEST. 


FIG.     2. — EXERCISE  TO  DEEPEN  THE  CHEST. 


this  amount,  or  even  less,  and  by  adding  a  few  exercises  each  day,  work 
up  to  the  full  dose  in  the  course  of  two  weeks.  During  these  move- 
ments the  patient  has  vigorously  exercised  the  chief  muscles  of  the 
trunk,  and  has  definitely  stimulated  the  circulation  through  all  the  ab- 
dominal organs.  At  first  he  will  very  probably  be  rendered  dizzy.  He 
should  work  more  slowly  under  these  conditions,  and  a  few  days  will  re- 
move the  difficulty. 

The  object  of  the  supine  position  is  to  extend  the  spine,  as  this  favors 
the  expansion  of  the  thorax.     The  muscles  that  hold  the  trunk  erect 


28  EXERCISE    AND    DEVELOPMENT 

are  also  freed  from  activity,  and  this  also  allows  increased  mobility  of 
the  ribs. 

At  about  ten  in  the  morning  a  series  of  short  fifteen-second,  slow 
runs,  each  run  followed  by  absolute  rest,  will  steadily  increase  the 
general  strength.  In  the  beginning  of  such  exercise  great  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  heart  is  not  overtaxed.  This  exercise  should  be  followed 
by  a  bath  and  rest.  In  the  afternoon  a  long,  slow  bicycle  ride,  or  a  game 
of  golf,  is  useful.  The  doses  in  running  may  be  steadily  increased  till 
three  or  four  miles  are  covered  daily  at  a  steady  dog-trot. 

The  general  principle  consists  in  beginning  well  within  the  ability  of 
the  patient,  and  by  steadily  increasing,  small  doses,  at  frequent  intervals, 
to  train  up  the  whole  organism  to  greater  power.  This  general  principle 
can  be  adapted  to  the  daily  requirements  of  life,  as  to  business,  meals, 
etc.  A  routine  of  gymnasium  exercise  with  pulley- weight  or  other  appa- 
ratus may  well  take  the  place  of  one  period  of  exercise,  although  exercise 
out-of-doors  is  generally  more  useful  than  work  indoors. 

Often  patients  wish  work  of  a  vigorous  type  prescribed  that  will  en- 
able them  to  do  all  they  can  in  a  few  moments.  The  evils  of  this  are 
that  the  neural  expenditure  will  usually  exceed  the  muscular;  sufficient 
time  is  not  taken  to  allow  the  thorough  flushing  of  the  parts  with  fresh 
lymph,  and  the  immense  benefit  of  long-continued  forced  or  full  breath- 
ing is  lost.  In  such  cases  the  individual  has  merely  added  to  his  daily 
work  a  certain  amount  of  muscular  labor.  In  all  cases  in  which  bodily 
health  and  vigor  are  sought  this  is  a  dangerous  experiment,  and  will 
probably  result  in  still  further  reducing  the  stock  of  vitality.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  muscular  labor,  like  all  other  forms  of  exertion,  is 
expensive,  not  recuperative,  of  energy.  Muscular  exercise  is  useful,  then, 
only  when  the  organism  has  both  time  and  power  to  rebuild  the  tissue 
broken  down  by  it.  To  add  muscular  exercise  to  the  daily  routine  of 
one  already  overworking  is  bad  therapeutics.  In  my  own  experience 
it  has  resulted  in  hastening  the  oncoming  of  the  general  disability  which 
it  was  intended  to  prevent. 

In  order,  then,  for  muscular  exercise  to  be  useful  in  the  case  of  over- 
worked persons,  the  following  conditions  must  be  fulfilled: 

1 .  Sufficient  diminution  of  other  work,  so  that  the  organism  is  free  to 
devote   its   energy   to   the   constructive   processes   that   should   follow 
exercise. 

2.  The  adaptation  of  the  quantity  of  the  exercise  to  the  recuperative 
powers  of  the  individual.     This  will  be  found  to  be  a  constantly  increas- 
ing quantity. 


CHAPTER   II 

MATERIA  GYMNASTICA;   SPORTS  AND  GAMES;   SYSTEMS  OF 

GYMNASTICS 

Walking  and  Running;  Calisthenics;  Pulley-weight  Exercises;  Heavy 
Gymnastic  Apparatus  Exercises;  Track  and  Field  Athletics;  Athletic 
Games;  Wrestling,  Boxing,  and  Fencing;  Bicycling;  Golf;  Horseback- 
riding;  Bowling;  Rowing.  Relation  of  Physical  Exercise  to  Age  and 
Sex.  Baseball,  Cricket,  Hockey,  Shinney,  Basket-ball,  and  Football. 
Characteristics  of  Hygienic  Gymnastics:  School  Gymnastics.  Training 
Medically  Considered:  i.  Condition;  2.  Habit;  3.  Strength;  4.  En- 
durance. Systems  of  Gymnastics:  German  Gymnastics;  Swedish  Gym- 
nastics; English  Physical  Exercises;  Delsarte;  Sargent;  Emerson;  Young 
Men's  Christian  Associations. 

Let  us  now  examine  briefly  the  characteristics  of  the  chief  forms  of 
general  muscular  exercise  available  for  ordinary  use.  The  following 
'classification  may  serve  for  practical  purposes,  although  open  to  theo- 
retic objections: 

1 .  Walking  and  running. 

2.  Calisthenic  exercises — Indian  clubs,  dumb-bells,  wands. 

3 .  Pulley- weight  exercises. 

4.  Heavy  gymnastic  apparatus  exercises. 

5.  Track  and  field  athletics. 

6.  Athletic  games. 

7.  Wrestling,  boxing,  fencing. 

8.  Bicycling. 

9.  Golf,  horseback-riding,  bowling,  rowing. 

i.  Walking  and  Running 

In  many  gymnasiums  formal  marching  is  much^affected.  In  order  that 
the  command  may  be  obeyed  promptly,  close  attention  is  necessary,  and 
although  in  the  course  of  time  obedience  becomes  automatic,  this  con- 
dition is  rarely  reached  in  the  ordinary  gymnasium.  Whenever  great 
precision  is  demanded,  particularly  when  the  commands  are  to  be  exe- 
cuted with  absolute  uniformity,  close  attention  to  the  orders  is  necessary. 

29 


30  MATERIA    GYMNASTICA 

Hence,  as  the  chief  effects  of  this  exercise  are  neural,  it  should  not  be 
indulged  in  by  patients  who  are  nervously  overworked.  Simple  march- 
ing without  complicated  commands  or  movements,  especially  without 
rapid  movements,  appears  to  be  unobjectionable  from  the  physiologic, 
as  well  as  from  the  psychologic,  viewpoint. 

Walking  is  the  form  of  exercise  most  generally  utilized.  The  effects 
vary  according  to  speed,  duration,  and  the  character  of  the  ground 
passed  over.  When  the  walk  is  not  too  rapid  for  the  natural  swing  of  the 
leg  to  bring  the  foot  forward  at  the  completion  of  each  step,  it  is  a  very 
moderate  exercise.  The  support  of  the  pelvis  upon  the  legs  in  alter- 
nation is  an  entirely  automatic  process ;  cardiac  activity  is  somewhat,  but 
not  greatly  accelerated;  and  the  respiration  is  quickened  in  proportion 
to  the  energy  expended.  The  objection  commonly  raised  against  walk- 
ing as  a  general  exercise  is  that  the  arms  are  not  used,  and  that  the 
muscles  of  the  trunk  receive  no  exercise.  During  rapid  walking,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  arms  are  used  continuously;  at  each  stride  the  pelvis  is 
slightly  rotated  in  order  to  lengthen  the  stride;  the  psoas  magnus  and 
the  long  head  of  the  rectus  femoris  are  called  into  active  operation  in 
pulling  the  thigh  forward,  while  the  action  of  the  same  muscles  is  needed 
to  pull  the  leg  forward,  particularly  at  the  end  of  the  step.  The  general 
discussion  under  the  head  of  specialization  has  shown  that  exercise  of  all 
the  muscles  of  the  body  is  not  indispensable,  but  that  the  important 
element  is  the  exercise  of  large  groups  of  muscles.  This  is  accomplished 
to  a  large  extent  by  walking,  particularly  by  walking  as  rapidly  as  four 
miles  in  the  hour.  When  much  exercise  at  this  rate  seems  inadvisable, 
the  same  result  can  be  attained  by  interrupting  the  walk  with  frequent 
rests.  This  point  has  been  discussed  under  the  head  of  dosage. 

The  agitation  of  the  body  at  every  step  tends  directly  to  stimulate 
the  functions  of  all  the  abdominal  organs.  In  this  respect,  walking  far 
excels  bicycling,  in  which  the  body  is  relatively  motionless  being  sup- 
ported on  the  tuberosities  of  the  ischium.  When  the  patient  can  utilize 
the  advantages  of  a  hill,  walking  can  be  made  even  more  effective  than 
on  the  level.  There  is  no  better  or  quicker  way  of  modifying  the  great 
organic  functions  of  respiration,  circulation,  and  digestion  than  by  walk- 
ing up  a  grade.  This  should  be  done  with  frequent  rests  in  order  to 
prevent  embarrassment  of  the  cardiac  or  pulmonary  systems;  but  for 
reasons  already  discussed  under  dosage  it  is  important  that  the  exer- 
cise be  sufficient  to  call  for  steady,  conscious  effort. 

The  effects  of  running  differ  from  those  of  walking  somewhat  in 
kind,  but  even  more  in  degree.  In  running  at  any  ordinary  rate  of 


CALISTHENICS  31 

speed  the  leg  does  not  have  to  be  pulled  forward  at  each  stride;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  up-and-down  motion  of  the  body  is  greater  in 
running  than  in  walking;  thus,  the  effect  upon  the  abdominal  organs 
is  greater,  the  energy  expended  is  greater,  and  the  effect  upon  the  gen- 
eral system  is  more  marked.  The  increased  activity  of  the  diaphragm 
also  stimulates  the  circulation  of  blood  in  the  abdominal  organs.  Run- 
ning should  not  be  pursued  to  the  point  of  circulatory  or  respiratory 
embarrassment,  not  only  because  of  the  effect  upon  these  organs  them- 
selves, but  because  at  this  point  great  effort  of  the  will  is  necessary  to 
force  the  individual  to  continue;  it  is  thus  neurally  exhausting.  The 
maximum  of  general  effect  is  secured  by  a  series  of  short  runs  with 
complete  rest  between,  rather  than  by  walking  slowly  for  a  long  dis- 
tance. Rapid  running  so  quickly  exhausts  the  organism  as  to  be  but 
little  suited  for  general  exercise. 

Alternate  slow  running  and  walking  meets  so  many  of  the  conditions 
of  general  exercise,  both  negative  and  positive,  that  I  am  confident  it  will 
have  a  large  place  in  the  future  as  it  has  had  in  the  past  in  general  exer- 
cise. It  is  not  of  prime  necessity  that  the  muscles  of  the  arms  be  greatly 
exercised.  Slow  walking  with  running  brings  into  play  the  general 
activities  of  the  body  in  an  excellent  way.  In  gymnasiums  having  no 
running  track  it  is  possible  to  have  a  large  number  running  on  the  gym- 
nasium floor  by  means  of  what  is  called  'maze  running.' 

2.  Calisthenics 

Although  it  is  convenient  to  classify  together  the  different  forms  of 
calisthenics,  they  vary  much  in  respect  to  each  other.  The  primary 
consideration  is  in  regard  to  the  movement  of  the  trunk.  If  the  legs 
and  body  remain  stationary,  the  apparatus  and  arms  alone  are  moved. 
The  exercise  in  this  case  is  then  generally  of  a  moderate  character,  and 
dependent  more  upon  skill  than  upon  strength.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  whole  body  is  moved,  the  exercise  acquires  a  far  more  vigorous 
character,  although  it  may  still  retain  its  characteristics  in  regard  to 
the  demand  of  skill.  When  the  body  remains  stationary,  and  in  each 
hand  is  a  light  wooden  dumb-bell  or  Indian  club,  the  muscular  exercise 
is  insignificant.  If  the  movements  are  complicated  and  follow  each 
other  with  speed,  the  neural  expenditure  is  large.  Those  forms  of 
exercise  which  one  is  most  likely  to  see  in  girls'  schools  are  often  of  a 
beautiful  character,  done  with  grace  and  precision,  but  are  little  adapted 
for  the  purposes  of  hygienic  exercise  or  the  stimulation  of  the  general 
functions  of  the  body.  They  depend  more  upon  memory,  upon  skill, 


32  MATERIA    GYMNASTICA 

upon  instant  attention,  than  upon  muscular  power.  When,  however: 
the  body  is  swayed  or  swung  at  each  movement,  there  is  added  to  the 
slight  weight  of  the  apparatus  the  weight  of  the  whole  body.  When  the 
floor  is  touched  with  the  dumb-bells  at  every  fourth  movement,  no 
matter  what  the  other  movements  may  be,  it  means  that  the  weight  of 
the  body  must  be  raised  approximately  18  inches,  which  implies  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  muscular  labor,  and  therefore  secures  the  general 
effects  of  exercise. 

Exercises  with  calisthenic  apparatus  may  be  difficult,  first,  because  of 
the  muscular  effort  demanded;  second,  because  of  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  movements  must  be  executed;  third,  because  of  the  demands 
made  on  the  attention  and  on  the  memory.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to 
pass  on  the  value  of  calisthenics  as  a  whole.  When  the  desideratum 
is  the  general  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  individual,  the  drill  should 
primarily  call  for  exertion  of  the  large  groups  of  muscles  of  the  legs  and 
trunk,  and  not  primarily  for  either  accuracy  or  memory  or  attention. 
In  prescribing  exercise  and  in  recommending  a  course  of  gymnastics 
this  point  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind,  for  serious  nervous  collapse  has 
often  been  accelerated  by  means  of  exercise  the  primary  effects  of  which 
were  not  muscular  but  neural.  Calisthenic  exercises  prepared  for  ex- 
hibition purposes  must  almost  of  necessity  be  of  this  latter  type;  for 
they  are  more  beautiful,  and  appeal  to  the  public  mind  in  a  way  that  the 
more  vigorous  but  less  accurately  executed  movements  of  a  larger  type 
cannot.  The  movements  should  be  performed  by  the  leader  and  then 
imitated  by  the  class  rather  than  done  to  command,  when  it  is  desired  to 
increase  the  muscular  and  decrease  the  neural  expenditure.  When 
calisthenic  drills  have  to  be  memorized,  it  is  again  unfortunate  for  the 
individual  who  wishes  to  escape  neural  expenditure.  I  have  seen  pre- 
scribed for  a  group  of  young  ladies  calisthenic  exercises  that  took  twenty- 
three  minutes  to  execute.  These  movements  were  done  to  count,  each 
person  keeping  the  count  in  her  own  mind.  After  a  certain  number  of 
counts  each  movement  was  changed  without  any  command  from  the 
leader,  each  pupil  depending  upon  her  own  memory  to  execute  the  proper 
movement.  Thus,  to  the  comparatively  insignificant  amount  of  mus- 
cular exercise  demanded  by  the  particular  drill  in  question,  there  was 
added  a  somewhat  complicated  intellectual  operation,  which  is  exactly 
what  is  to  be  avoided.  The  general  effects  of  exercise  are  to  be  attained 
by  calisthenic  drills  only  when  the  great  muscles  of  the  back  and 
thighs  and  of  the  shoulders  are  brought  constantly  and  vigorously  into 
action. 

In  Indian  club  work,  when  the  clubs  are  light  and  swung  without 


PULLEY-WEIGHT    EXERCISES 


33 


movement  of  the  body,  there  is  little  effect  upon  the  organism  as  a  whole. 
Swinging  heavy  Indian  clubs,  however,  that  cannot  be  handled  by  the 
small  muscular  group  of  the  hand  and  forearm,  is  accomplished  "By  the 
larger  groups  of  the  trunk  and  shoulder,  the  hand  and  wrist  in  this  case 
being  merely  used  as  prehensile  organs.  Exercise  with  clubs  of  a  heavy 
character  cannot,  of  course,  be  so  complicated  as  it  can  be  when  the  clubs 


FIG.    3. — EXERCISE  FOR  DORSAL  MUSCLES. 


FIG.    4. — PULLEY  WEIGHT. 


are  light;  thus,  we  increase  the  muscular  and  decrease  the  neural  effect 
by  such  a  change.  Hence,  work  with  heavy  Indian  clubs  has  more 
general  effect  upon  the  body  than  work  with  light  clubs. 

3.  Pulley- weight  Exercises 

There  is  a  large  class-  of  gymnastic  machines  the  central  element  of 
which  is  a  weight  attached  to  a  rope  that  passes  over  a  pulley.     To  the 


34 


MATERIA    GYMNASTICA 


distal  end  of  the  rope  is  affixed  a  handle  or  some  other  means  of  attach- 
ment to  the  individual.  The  weights  are  usually  variable,  depending 
upon  the  load  that  it  is  desired  to  give  to  the  muscle  and  the  size  of  the 
muscular  group  to  be  exercised.  The  general  object  of  all  pulley -weight 
exercises  is  to  isolate  special  groups  of  muscles.  This  end  is  largely, 
although  not  entirely  attained.  The  so-called  Zander  machines  used  most 
extensively  in  Sweden  accomplish  this  end  more  perfectly  than  any 
others;  but  they  are  used  so  exclusively  in  connection  with  medical 


FIG. 


5. — EXERCISE  FOR  SHOULDER 
MUSCLES. 


FIG.     6. — ALTERNATE  ARM-EXERCISE. 


gymnastics  that  they  should  be  considered  under  that  head. 

The  pulley -weight  exercises  deserve  to  be  viewed  by  themselves.  They 
exercise  muscles  in  anatomic  groups,  rather  than  in  such  combinations  as 
are  found  in  the  ordinary  gymnastic  and  athletic  exercises.  Putting  a 
dumb-bell  to  the  floor  and  lifting  it  again  is  a  single  operation  physio- 
logically, but  anatomically  it  involves  the  co-operation  of  most  of  the 
large  groups  of  muscles  of  the  body. 

The  object  of  isolating  the  muscular  groups  is  that  each  may  be 
given  precisely  that  load  which  is  best  adapted  for  its  own  develop- 
ment, and  thus  to  produce  the  maximum  of  effect  upon  it.  Another 


PULLEY-WEIGHT    EXERCISES 


35 


reason  is  that  when  exercise  is  of  a  local  character,  it  is  possible  for  the 
vasomotor  system  to  direct  to  the  muscles  involved  a  larger  blood- 
supply  than  is  possible  when  many  groups  are  exercised  at  once.  The 
dilatation  of  arterioles  supplying  groups  of  muscles  in  exercise  is  effec- 
tive only  when  there  are  not  so  many  groups  exercising  at  once  as  to 
demand  the  bulk  of  the  blood-supply.  In  the  latter  case  all  that  can  be 
done  is,  by  means  of  increased  cardiac  activity  and  the  limitation  of  the 
blood-supply  to  the  abdominal  organs,  to  send  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
total  quantity  of  blood  to  the  muscles  in  general.  This  accelerates  the 
general  circulation  of  the  body.  It  thus  appears  that  the  food-supply  of 


f  IG.    7. — EXERCISE  FOR  LUMBAR  MUSCLES.      FIG.    8. — EXERCISE  FOR  BACK  AND  WAIST. 

any  given  group  of  muscles  may  be  temporarily  increased  more  rapidly 
when  this  group  is  exercised  alone,  as  is  done  by  pulley-weights,  than 
when  it  is  exercised  coincidently  with  a  large  number  of  other  groups. 
In  the  movement  referred  to — stooping  to  the  ground  and  rising  again — 
muscles  belonging  to  both  sides  of  the  trunk  and  to  all  the  limbs  are 
brought  into  play.  The  result  is  an  increase  of  the  circulation  through- 
out the  whole  body.  This,  however,  does  not  correspond  to  the  degree 
of  local  physiologic  effect  that  is  produced  when  these  same  groups  are 
exercised  separately.  We  thus  see  the  primary  indication  for  the  use 
of  pulley-weight  machines.  They  are  excellent  to  develop  weak  parts, 


36  MATERIA    GYMNASTICA 

to  bring  into  activity  muscular  groups  that  for  some  particular  reason 
are  behind  their  fellows.  It  is  possible  in  connection  with  the  various 
attachments  of  these  pulley-weight  machines  to  exercise  almost  any  of 
the  larger  groups  of  muscles  of  the  body  and  limbs.  By  taking  them  in 
rotation,  all  the  muscular  groups  may  well  be  exercised  in  succession. 
There  is,  however,  another  way  in  which  these  machines  may  be 
used  with  a  resultant  effect  that  is  quite  different.  In  using  a  dumb-bell 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  downward  pull  of  gravity  to  furnish  work  for 
the  muscles.  In  the  same  way  exercises  of  a  general  character  may 
be  done  with  these  pulley-weight  machines,  the  difference  between  them 
and  the  dumb-bell  being  that  with  the  former  the  pull  is  lateral  instead 
of  vertical.  A  ten-pound  dumb-bell  is  equivalent  to  a  ten-pound  weight 
on  the  end  of  a  rope,  but  in  the  case  of  the  pulley-weight  the  pull  is 


FIG.    9. — PARALLEL  BARS. 

exerted  in  a  horizontal  direction.  This  fact  may  be  taken  advantage 
of  in  altering  some  of  the  muscular  leverages  of  the  body  by  one  of  the 
so-called  'chest -weight'  machines.  These  are  pulley-weight  apparatus 
in  which  the  handle  is  approximately  at  the  height  of  the  shoulders. 
Let  a  person  stand  sideways  to  one  of  these  machines  and  take  the 
handle  with  the  proximal  hand,  pull  it  to  the  floor,  extend  it  along  the 
floor  as  far  away  from  the  machine  as  possible,  then  lift  the  handle  as 
far  vertically  as  possible,  and  ultimately  let  the  handle  come  back  to  its 
original  position.  In  this  we  have  a  movement  as  general  in  its  effect 
upon  the  muscles  involved  as  any  done  with  the  dumb-bells.  The 
effect  upon  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  differs,  however,  in  that  the  effort 
involves  far  more  of  a  lateral  pull  than  when  it  is  merely  gravity  that  is 
being  resisted.  Such  an  exercise  is  not  a  movement  of  muscular  iso- 
lation, and  it  therefore  produces  the  general  effects  of  exercise  upon  the 


HEAVY    GYMNASTIC    APPARATUS  37 

body  and  its  organs.  There  are,  moreover,  mental  reasons  for  the  use 
of  such  apparatus.  Many  patients  require  that  something  shall  be  done 
which  appears  impressive.  The  power  of  suggestion  is  most  potent  even 
in  the  attainment  of  physiologic  results  from  exercise. 

One  of  the  most  common  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  use  of 
these  machines  is  the  tendency  of  most  individuals  to  stand  with  the 
thorax  in  an  unphysiologic  position  while  going  through  the  exercises. 
In  prescribing  such  exercises  particular  attention  must  be  given  to  this 
point.  The  spine  should  be  kept  rigidly  erect,  with  the  thorax  in  the  so- 
called  active  position. 

The  use  of  pulley-weight  exercises  appears  to  be  but  slightly  expensive 
from  the  neural  standpoint,  far  less  so  than  more  complicated  exercises 


-IP 


FIG.  10. — GERMAN  HORSE. 

requiring  less  muscular  effort.  This  indicates  one  direction  of  their 
usefulness.  Business  or  professional  men  wishing  a  general  exercise,  or 
one  preliminary  to  general  exercise,  may  be  given  a  series  of  movements 
that  shall  in  quick  succession  exercise  the  chief  muscular  groups  of  the 
body,  and  thus  prepare  them  gradually  for  more  vigorous  exertions. 

4.  Heavy  Gymnastic  Apparatus 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  characterize  the  whole  subject  of  ap- 
paratus work,  as  it  varies  not  only  with  the  kind  of  apparatus  used, 
but  also  with  the  way  in  which  it  is  used.  In  general  we  may  say  that 
the  object  of  the  apparatus  is  to  afford  a  stationary  support  or  base  of 
operation  for  the  body.  Gymnastic  work  is  thus  in  contrast  with 
calisthenics,  in  which  the  apparatus  is  moved  while  the  body  remains 
relatively  stationary. 


38  MATERIA    GYMNASTICA 

Let  us  examine,  first,  apparatus  exercises  in  which  the  individual  is 
engaged  for  from  ten  to  twenty  seconds  continuously.  During  this  time 
the  weight  of  the  body  is  supported  almost  continuously  by  the  arms. 
On  the  rings  or  horizontal  bar,  or  suspended  ladder,  the  arms  are  largely 
overhead;  on  the  horse,  or  low  bar,  the  arms  are  held  downward;  but  in 
both  cases  the  weight  is  supported  from  the  shoulders.  It  is  the  general 
agreement  that  such  exercise  persisted  in  continuously  for  a  long  time  leads 
to  enlargement  of  the  shoulder  and  strengthening  of  its  ligaments,  limita- 
tion of  the  freedom  of  its  movements,  and  the  pronounced  development 
of  the  flexors  of  the  fingers  so  that  the  latter  are  usually  held  in  an  almost 
flexed  position.  Referring  back  to  one  of  our  original  propositions,  that 
function  makes  structure,  we  see  that  the  supporting  of  the  weight  of  the 
body  with  the  arms  has  resulted  in  so  changing  the  shoulder-joint  as  to 
make  it  better  adapted  for  the  handling  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  in 
this  respect  becoming  more  like  the  hip-joint.  If  we  admit  that  each 
part  of  the  body  should  be  exercised  in  accordance  with  its  natural 
function,  we  should  condemn  such  exercises;  for  the  arms  have  been 
developed  through  the  handling  of  objects  other  than  the  body.  In  their 
natural  state  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  chest  are  competent  to  hold  the 
body  temporarily,  but  not  to  do  the  work  demanded  of  them  in  heavy 
gymnastics. 

If,  now,  we  use  the  apparatus  somewhat  more  as  an  obstacle  to 
get  over  or  around  than  as  something  to  rest  upon,  each  exercise 
lasting  but  a  second  or  two,  we  shall  change  the  character  of  the 
work,  and  shall  overcome  the  difficulties  referred  to.  It  is  perfectly 
physiologic  to  have  the  arms  support  the  body  for  a  moment,  as  in 
vaulting  or  climbing,  in  which  the.  arms  and  legs  are  used  alter- 
nately. This  brings  us  to  the  desirable  type  of  apparatus  work,  which 
affords  variety  without  lessening  the  general  effects  of  exercise.  The 
result  is  obtained  by  a  larger  number  of  exercises  of  a  more  moderate 
character.  Lifting  a  weight  with  the  two  legs  is  as  much  exercise  as 
raising  it  with  one  arm.  The  same  number  of  foot-pounds  of  energy 
is  expended  in  the  two  cases.  When  the  weight  is  raised  by  the  legs, 
large  masses  of  muscle  are  used — the  work  is  thus  done  easily;  when  it 
is  done  by  one  arm,  comparatively  small  masses  of  muscle  are  engaged, 
hence  it  is  done  with  difficulty.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  exercises 
involving  more  than  momentary  support  by  the  arms  should  never  be 
used.  An  individual  who  has  worked  for  a  year  or  two  will  naturally 
develop  in  accordance  with  the  growth  of  his  own  strength  and  apti- 
tude. A  man  with  small  hips  and  light  legs  will  do  readily  what  a  man 
of  different  build  could  not  accomplish  without  unwise  straining.  In 


SPORTS    AND    GAMES 


39 


general,  however,  more  substantial  and  better  results,  especially  as  to 
the  heart  and  lungs,  are  achieved  by  quick  apparatus  work  with  mo- 
mentary arm  support  than  by  exercises  under  the  opposite  conditions. 

5.  Track  and  Field  Sports 

Actual  competition  differs  much  from  training.  That  which  I  shall 
speak  of  now  is  the  result  of  the  exercise  that  a  man  gets  who  practises 
moderately.  Track  and  field  sports  correspond  to  the  more  elementary 
activities  of  savage  life — running,  jumping,  throwing,  and  the  like. 
They  involve  psychic  characteristics  that  differentiate  them  from 
gymnastics.  There  is  a  joy  in  doing  them  that  is  not  usually  found  in 
gymnastics. 

The  quantity  of  exercise  to  be  derived  from  any  given  sport  is  so- 
limited  that  sports  do  not  appear  to  be  suited  for  general  exercise.  It 
is  difficult  for  a  high  jumper  to  do  enough  high  jumping  alone  to  get 
general  exercise  out  of  it.  The  jumping  is  not  interesting  unless  it  is 
high  enough  to  involve  an  effort  in  each  jump.  If  it  is  so  high  as  this, 
then  it  is  more  an  exercise  of  will,  co-ordination,  and  nerve-force  than  of 
muscle.  A  man  coming  from  such  exercises,  especially  when  they  have 
been  extreme,  will  find  his  hands  trembling,  and  will  show  other  signs  of 
neural  rather  than  of  muscular  fatigue.  It  may  be  said  that  a  man 
should  simply  make  moderate  efforts,  that  he  should  make  none  of  the 
extreme  efforts  that  call  for  the  undesirable  neural  expense.  The  answer 
to  this  is  that  the  formation  of  such  habits  is  detrimental  to  the  real  con- 
test ;  that  the  man  who  trains  himself  to  run  slowly  will  form  habits  of 
running  slowly,  so  that  he  will  never  be  able  to  run  with  greatest  speed. 

Training  for  long-distance  running  is  an  exception  to  much  of  what 
has  been  said  about  track  and  field  sports.  This  sport  calls  almost  ex- 
clusively for  general,  rather  than  for  local  exercise. 

If  a  man  will  run  quickly  through  a  variety  of  sports — jumping  a 
little,  putting  the  shot  a  little,  pole-vaulting  a  little — and  not  try  too 
hard  in  any  one,  he  will  get  a  good  deal  of  exercise  out  of  the  pastime. 
But  the  number  of  men  content  to  do  this  is  small.  Young  men  before 
they  are  twenty-five,  who  are  in  the  period  of  final  ripening  of  the  neuro- 
muscular  mechanism,  thoroughly  enjoy  the  keen  competition  of  these 
sports.  For  such  individuals,  it  is  my  belief  that  the  sports  themselves 
are  beneficial. 

6.  Games 

It  is  not  possible  to  characterize  the  physical  activities  of  games  as  a 
whole.  They  vary  from  the  intense  labor  involved  in  football  to  the 


40  SPORTS    AND    GAMES 

almost  exclusively  intellectual  occupation  of  chess.  We  are  not  now  con- 
cerned with  the  more  intellectual  games ;  we  liave  to  do  with  those  which 
involve  muscular  power  *  The  amount  of  work  that  can  be  done  without 
fatigue  during  games  is  astonishing.  This  is  especially  evident  when  one 
considers  the  fatigue  that  results  from  tlie  same  amount  of  muscular 
work  done  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  conscious  will. 

Basket  Ball. — There  is  no  game  that  demands  more  varied  and  con- 
stant muscular  exercise  than  basket  ball;  hence,  we  must  note  its 
qualities.  The  muscular  work  demanded  by  basket  ball  is  varied;  the 
large  muscles  of  tne  back  are  contracted  frequently  in  stooping;  the 
muscles  of  the  abdomen  are  exercised  vigorously  every  time  the  individ- 
ual starts  to  run ;  the  arms  are  in  constant  motion  handling  or  endeavor- 
ing to  handle  a  light  object,  occasionally  in  defending  the  body  from 
running  into  a  piece  of  apparatus;  the  legs  are  in  constant  and  varied 
activity,  and  there  is  great  call  for  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs ;  there  is 
much  agitation  of  the  abdominal  organs.  In  these  respects /basket  ball 
is  an  ideal  exercise!  The  game  has  a  minimum  of  local  effect.  We 
rarely  find  muscular  groups  built  up  by  basket  ball,  although  the  game 
calls  for  the  activity  of  nearly  all  of  them.  It  does  put  them  all  in  a  con- 
dition of  vigorous  functioning  ability,  but  it  does  not  usually  increase 
tissue.  It  does  increase  the  power  of  the  circulatory  and  respiratory 
apparatus.  The  game,  when  played  under  conditions  of  intense  com- 
petition, involves  a  strain  on  the  attention,  exceedingly  rapid  starting 
and  stopping,  so  that  the  neural  expense  is  great;  it  is  here  that  basket 
ball  experts  chiefly  suffer.  Before  a  person  is  able  to  play  well  enough 
to  be  a  member  of  a  team  in  which  there  is  intense  competition,  he  has 
played  for  a  sufficiently  long  time  to  become  somewhat  habituated  to  it ; 
still  the  nervously  exhausting  effects  are  common.  It  should  be  recalled 
that  the  game  is  expending  these  efforts  in  lines  to  which  the  race,  if  not 
the  individual,  is  accustomed;  and  that  -  accordingly  nothing  like  the 
same  effect  is  produced  by  an  equal  degree  of  concentration  here,  as  it 
would  be  if  spent  in  other  lines.  This  point  is  important,  but  has 
possibly  not  been  much  considered  heretofore.  The  same  degree  of  con- 
centration and  effort  directed  in  most  other  lines  would  quickly  exhaust 
the  individual.  Even  in  basket  ball  few  persons  are  able  to  stand  two 
intense  games  a  week. 

When  the  game  is  played  rapidly,  the  organ  that  is  the  most  over- 
worked appears  to  be  the  heart,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  this  difficulty  can  be 
obviated  without  altering  the  game  as  a  whole.  Allowing  one  minute's 
rest  for  every  five  minutes  of  play  might  help,  but  even  here  the  absolute 
quantity  of  work  done  by  the  heart  remains  the  same.  For  a  person  who 


WRESTLING,    BOXING,    AND    FENCING  41 

shows  any  sign  of  nervous  exhaustion,  the  intense  competition  of  any 
such  game  as  basket  ball  must  prove  unqualifiedly  injurious.  If  we  re- 
move the  more  intense  competitions,  and  use  more  of  the  recreative 
element,  we  achieve  an  excellent  physiologic,  neural,  and  psychic  result. 

This  discussion  of  basket  ball  may  perhaps  serve  to  indicate  the 
general  characteristics  of  useful  games,  and  the  way  in  which  one  can 
arrive  at  conclusions  in  regard  to  their  usefulness.  The  following  ques- 
tions answered  about  any  given  game  will  give  useful  information : 

Does  it  involve  frequent  contraction  of  the  great  muscular  groups 
of  the  body?  Does  it  demand  moderate  efforts?  What  are  its  effects 
upon  the  heart  and  lungs?  Does  the  game  keep  the  chest  in  such  a 
position  as  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  functions  of  circulation  and 
respiration?  Are  the  various  series  of  contractions  intermittent,  so  that 
the  muscles  have  time  to  recover  their  tone,  and  are  not  overcome  by 
fatigue?  Is  the  danger  of  competition  such  as  will  lead  men  to  excessive 
expenditure?  Are  there  any  parts  of  the  body  that  are  so  called  into 
action  as  to  render  their  development  excessive  ?  Is  the  game  adapted  to 
the  stage  of  life  of  the  individuals  for  whom  it  is  designed  ? . 

7.  Wrestling,  Boxing,  Fencing 

Putting  these  exercises  in  the  order  of  muscular  strength,  and  the 
inverse  order  of  skill  demanded,  we  say;  first,  wrestling;  second,  sparring; 
third,  the  various  forms  of  fencing.  Actual  work  in  any  of  these  three 
is  so  dangerous,  and  accidents  are  so  common,  that  only  practice  or 
training,  as  distinguished  from  contesting,  is  to  be  considered  as  available 
for  exercise. 

Wrestling  is  so  much  a  matter  of  weight  as  to  be  done  always  in 
classes,  and  it  is  but  rarely  that  a  man  of  one  class  is  fitted  to  compete 
with  those  of  a  heavier  class.  The  individual  efforts  are  great;  they 
follow  each  other  rapidly,  and  the  exercise  therefore  violates  some  of  our 
fundamental  laws.  It  may  not,  however,  be  at  all  out  of  place  to  have 
wrestling  movements  done  in  pairs  in  gymnasium  work,  no  throws  being 
allowed  on  the  floor,  holds  and  breaks  alone  being  counted.  The  great 
interest  that  most  people  have  in  these  exercises  is  evident  to  all.  It  is 
to  be  explained  upon  the  hypothesis  of  their  importance  from  the  racial 
standpoint.  No  other  exercises  are  so  likely  to  be  associated  with  anger, 
because,  I  suppose,  anger  was  associated  with  fighting  in  the  beginning; 
and  it  is  only  one  of  the  achievements  of  modern  civilization  that  a  great 
battle  can  be  fought  without  personal  animosity  between  those  in  charge. 

Sparring. — Anger  has  been  associated  with  fighting  so  long  that  one 
instinctively  comes  into  a  state  of  mind  of  belligerency  and  readiness  for 


42  SPORTS    AND    GAMES 

anger  even  when  practising  sparring.  Sparring  demands  more  from  the 
nervous  system  and  less  from  the  muscular  than  does  wrestling,  although 
both  of  these  demand  much  from  the  heart  and  lungs. 

Fencing  demands  a  maximum  from  the  nervous  system,  and  not  a 
great  amount  from  the  muscular  system.  The  thighs  are  held  in  a  position 
that  is  fatiguing,  more  from  holding  the  positions  than  from  the  active 
exercise  involved.  This  static  contraction  of  muscle  is  far  more  ex- 
pensive than  contraction  with  relaxation,  because  it  demands  the 
steady  innervation  of  the  groups  involved,  as  well  as  because  it  does  not 
favor  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  lymph.  Those  who  fence  much 
acquire  a  more  or  less  marked  scoliosis,  a  lowering  of  one  shoulder,  and 
an  undue  development  of  the  fencing  arm.  The  attention  must  be  held 
in  fencing  as  in  no  other  exercise.  It  must  never  for  a  moment  be  re- 
laxed. The  movements  must  respond  with  the  greatest  speed  to  the 
direction  of  the  will.  Thus,  we  get  the  maximum  of  neural  expenditure 
with  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  muscular  work.  This  does  not 
appear  to  obtain  in  practising  the  single-stick  drills  and  other  exercises, 
which  are  really  calisthenics  done  in  the  form  of  fencing,  but  appear  to  be 
more  interesting  than  most  other  forms  of  calisthenic  exercises. 

Thus,  with  reference  to  track  and  field  athletics  as  well  as  these 
three  combative  exercises,  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  gymnasium  work 
from  them  that  shall  be  definitely  interesting  and  valuable  on  account 
of  the  psychologic  setting  of  these  activities  in  the  history  of  the  race. 

8.  Bicycling 

So  soon  as  the  wheel  has  been  thoroughly  mastered,  riding  becomes 
largely  an  automatic  process.  The  chief  labor  is  accomplished  by  the 
extensors  of  the  thigh  and  leg.  These  being  large  groups  of  muscles, 
the  circulation  and  respiration  as  well  as  the  general  nutritive  activities 
of  the  body  are  stimulated,  the  acceleration  being  directly  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  foot-pounds  of  energy  expended.  Pursued  at  a 
moderate  gait,  and  for  moderate  distances,  bicycling  is  in  many  respects 
an  ideal  exercise.  So  soon  as  the  speed  becomes  extreme,  as  with  all 
other  exercises,  we  find  neural  expenditure  becoming  great,  for  the 
motor  centers  must  be  consciously  stimulated  and  the1  attention  must 
constantly  be  given  to  the  work  itself.  This  is  equally  true  when 
the  exercise  is  unduly  prolonged.  When  one  becomes  accustomed  to 
the  wheel,  riding  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  daily,  at  the  rate  of  seven  to 
eight  miles  an  hour,  over  a  good  road,  is  moderate  exercise.  Riding 
more  than  twelve  miles  an  hour  even  on  a  good  road  is  rather  severe 
exercise.  Since  the  production  of  saddles  that  allow  the  weight  to  be 


BOWLING  43 

sustained  by  the  tuberosities  of  the  ischium,  objections  that  formerly 
obtained  in  regard  to  the  wheel  have  been  largely  removed,  and  thus  do 
not  need  discussion  here.  One  respect  in  which  walking  and  running 
are  better  than  bicycling  is  that  the  trunk  is  agitated  far  more  by  the 
former  exercises  than  by  bicycling.  Thus,  circulation  in  the  abdominal 
organs  is  stimulated  more  in  the  one  case  than  the  other. 

9.  Golf 

One  of  the  forms  of  exercise  now  coming  into  great  popularity  is  golf. 
It  needs  no  extended  discussion,  for  its  advantages  and  limitations  are 
manifest  from  previous  discussions.  It  involves  considerable  time 
spent  out-of-doors,  hence  is  exceedingly  advantageous.  It  involves  a 
large  amount  of  walking;  the  attention  is  constantly  engaged,  and  is 
thus  kept  from  reverting  to  business  and  other  cares.  This  is  a  great 
point  in  its  favor.  The  exercise  involved  in  it,  while  somewhat  extended, 
is  of  a  moderate  character.  It  is  thus  evident  that  there  are  few  exer- 
cises that  afford  such  excellent  opportunities  for  middle-aged  men  and 
for  women  of  all  ages,  for  whom  more  severe  exercise  would  be  out  of 
the  question.  Its  great  advantage  is  that  interest  in  it  is  maintained 
for  years. 

Horseback-riding 

The  peculiar  effect  of  horseback-riding  is  due  to  the  up-and-down 
motion  of  the  horse,  which  agitates  the  abdominal  organs.  This  is 
effective  in  proportion  as  the  gait  of  the  horse  is  hard  or  easy.  The 
necessity  for  the  balancing  of  the  trunk  while  gripping  the  saddle 
with  the  knees,  gives  to  the  rider  the  general  effects  of  exercise.  In  its 
effect  upon  the  abdominal  organs,  notably  the  liver,  we  get  marked 
results  from  horseback-riding.  The  gait  most  active  therapeutically 
is,  of  course,  the  trot.  There  is  a  kind  of  delight  that  many  persons 
take  in  this  exercise  that  is  in  its  favor,  and  must  be  borne  in  mind  in 
ordering  it. 

Bowling 

This  is  a  form  of  exercise  often  exceedingly  enjoyed  by  business  and 
professional  men,  although  not  so  much  so  by  young  men.  Unfortun- 
ately, the  ventilation  in  bowling  alleys  is  usually  poor.  The  exercise 
is  moderate  and  in  the  main  excellent,  although  it  is  of  a  somewhat  one- 
sided character.  I  have  failed  to  see  any  unfortunate  results  from 
bowling  even  when  it  is  indulged  to  some  excess.  The  interest  in  the 
game  is  such  as  to  warrant  its  being  used  as  a  general  form  of  exercise. 


44  SPORTS    AND    GAMES 

Rowing 

Ordinary  rowing  in  a  row-boat  differs  markedly  from  the  effects  of 
rowing  when  it  is  done  in  a  shell  on  sliding  seat  and  at  racing  speed.  In 
the  former  case,  it  may  be  classed  as  a  general  exercise  of  moderate 
severity,  with  particular  effect  upon  the  forearm,  shoulders,  and  back. 
In  the  latter  case  it  is  an  exercise  of  great  severity,  with  chief  effect  upon 
the  thighs,  back,  and  forearm,  and  particularly  upon  the  heart.  For 
purposes  of  general  exercise,  this  latter  style  of  rowing  may  be  left  out 
of  account.  The  one  important  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  connection 
with  ordinary  rowing  is  that  the  back  should  be  kept  flat;  for  in 
this  condition  alone  are  the  heart  and  lungs  operating  to  the  best 
advantage. 

Relation  of  Physical  Exercise  to  Age  and  Sex. — Let  us  now  consider  the 
application  of  the  whole  foregoing  discussion  in  relation  to  age  and  sex. 
Let  us  follow  the  needs  of  the  growing  organism  from  infancy  to  old 
age,  observing  the  place  that  muscular  exercise  has  in  each  period.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  importance  of  muscular  exercise  de- 
creases with  every  succeeding  year  of  life.  The  infant  without  mus- 
cular exercise  would  fail  to  develop  fundamental  physical  as  well  as 
psychic  qualities.  All  that  is  needed  for  the  exercise  of  the  infant  is 
opportunity.  Freed  as  much  as  possible  from  the  restraints  of  clothing, 
the  infant  should  be  allowed  to  play  freely  for  considerable  periods 
every  day.  The  instinctive  play  of  mothers  with  their  children  seems 
to  be  an  entirely  rational  process,  an  agency  which  through  natural 
selection  has  tended  toward  the  development,  and  hence  the  survival,  of 
the  young.  The  study  of  these  instinctive  mother-plays  form  an  inter- 
esting commentary  on  the  order  of  development  of  the  child's  neuro- 
muscular  system  and  his  sense  organs.  They  are,  however,  done  by  the 
mother  without  any  conscious  educational  purpose. 

Soon  the  play  instincts  of  the  child  lead  it  into  experimentation  with 
all  the  objects  at  hand,  and  in  all  available  ways.  It  will  play  with  sand, 
with  blocks;  will  run/will  throw.  The  order  of  development  of  these 
plays  is,  in  the  main,  a  definite  and  logical  one,  from  the'  simple  to  the 
complex,  from  central  to  peripheral  movements.  During  the  first  six 
or  seven  years  of  life  the  child  will  take  ample  exercise  if  given  oppor- 
tunity to  do  so.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  furnish  the  implements. 
It  is  far  better  to  have  these  implements  of  the  kind  that  allows  the  child 
to  exercise  his  own  constructive  instincts  than  to  give  him  complete  toys, 
such  as  railroad  trains,  wind-mills,  and  the  like.  No  possible  scheme  of 
physical  training  can  do  as  much  for  the  child  as  his  natural  play;  for 


EVOLUTION    IN    PLAY 

his  natural  play  is  the  result  of  selection  working  through  the  un- 
fathomable ages  of  evolution.  At  about  seven,  games  come  to  be  of 
predominant  interest  to  children,  particularly  games  involving  the  ele- 
ment of  competition.  It  is  here  that  the  various  forms  of  tag  are  devel- 
oped, such  as  'cross  tag,'  'prisoner's  base,'  'black  man,'  and  the  like. 
Elementary  games  of  ball,  'hide  and  seek,'  'duck  on  the  rock,'  games 
with  marbles,  'leap  frog,'  begin  to  be  attractive,  and  the  child  develops 
an  interest  in  track  and  field  sports.  The  care  of  land  and  the  love  of 
animals  is  accentuated  during  this  period,  and  the  instincts  for  hunting 
and  fishing  usually  assert  themselves.  This  period  represents  the  onto- 
genetic  acquirement  of  those  capacities  that  precede  the  dawn  of  even 
barbaric  human  life.  It  represents  a  stage  in  which  the  individual  de- 
pended upon  individual  combat  for  existence.  During  these  years  the 
physician  will  have  to  be  careful  that  the  number  of  hours  taken  for 
school  work  does  not  so  encroach  upon  the  hours  of  play  as  to  render 
these  racial  achievements  impossible.  The  boy  or  girl  who  has  oppor- 
tunity for  the  playing  of  games,  who  has  a  sufficient  number  of  play- 
mates, and  sufficient  space  to  play,  will  be  found  to  develop  suitably. 
Cities  are  being  built  up  so  compactly,  however,  that  it  is  becoming 
necessary  to  make  special  efforts  to  get  playgrounds.  This  is  already 
being  done  in  most  of  the  large  cities,  and  the  movement  will  be  favored 
by  all  who  consider  the  organic  requirements  of  the  individual  during  this 
stage  of  life.  'Play  is  far  more  important  for  the  child's  development 
than  formal  scnool  educational  gymnastics  during  these  yearsj  Through 
these  plays,  bodily  skill  as  well  as  vigor  of  heart  and  lungs  is  gained,  and 
the  muscles  are  called  upon  for  constant  and  varied  activity.  It  is  true 
that  they  do  not  seem  to  have  the  logical  development  that  can  be  found 
in  systematic  gymnastics,  but  I  believe  that  this  is  only  a  seeming  lack. 
If  one  considers  the  plays  and  games  of  boys  and  girls  during  an  entire 
year,  he  will  find  a  progressive  and  most  complicated  and  elaborate 
scheme.  It  is  true  that  during  the  marble  season  boys  will  play  but 
little  else  than  marbles,  but  the  season  is  soon  over.  It  is  followed  by 
top  season,  or  kite  season,  or  some  other  sport.  These  sports  have  a 
seasonal  rotation,  and  occur  every  year  with  more  uniformity  even  than 
the  seasons.  The  time  for  marbles  or  tops  can  be  predicted  with  far 
more  accuracy  than  can  the  arrival  of  robins  or  the  advent  of  spring. 
If  one  looks  at  the  range  of  sports  covered  in  this  methodically  hap- 
hazard fashion  for  a  year,  it  will  at  once  be  evident  that  the  curriculum 
of  sport  is  a  rather  complete  one.  It  will  be  evident  that  the  child  dur- 
ing the  year  has  had  exercises  for  skill  of  hand,  quickness  of  eye,  the  de- 
velopment of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  as  well  as  of  those  of  the  limbs; 


46  SPORTS    AND    GAMES 

that  heart  and  lungs  have  been  given  vigorous  training;  and,  in  fact,  the 
whole  organism  has  been  called  into  play  in  a  way  that  is  entirely  im- 
possible by  gymnastics.  We  have  already  seen  that  gymnastics  deal 
largely  with  the  chief  muscular  groups.  The  neuromuscular  plays  of 
boys  and  girls  include  not  only  all  the  muscular  combinations  developed 
by  gymnastics,  but  the  finer  muscles  of  the  hand,  of  the  face,  and  of  the 
larynx  as  well.  Play  also  includes  an  emotional  development  and  a 
training  of  the  will ;  it  involves  self-control  and  the  development  of  those 
instincts  of  competition  and  self-reliance  which  are  basal  to  the  develop- 
ment of  character.  Gymnastics  seem  more  logical,  but  are  in  reality  far 
less  so. 

The  human  embryo  in  coming  to  term,  passes  in  gross  outline  through 
the  life-history  of  the  race  from  the  amoeba  up.  Conscious  human 
guidance  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  would  be  injurious  in  the  en- 
deavor to  guide  the  development  of  the  cells.  The  developing  embryo 
does  not  start  directly  toward  the  adult  human  form.  It  pursues  a 
most  circuitous  route.  This  is  equally  true  in  regard  to  the  child's 
development  after  birth.  Nature's  forces  are  competent  to  lead  to  the 
full  development  of  the  body  whenever  they  are  given  the  opportunity 
to  do  so.  One  element  that  must  be  conserved  by  human  consciousness 
is  the  environment  favorable  to  play  which  civilization  constantly  tends 
to  remove.  Human  society  has  developed  far  more  experience  than  has 
become  incorporated  in  the  neural  structure  of  the  individual.  Thus, 
conscious  education  in  matters  that  relate  to  elements  learned  during 
the  civilized  life  of  the  race  must  be  taught  by  society,  and  schools 
are  therefore  a  necessity;  but  the  basal  elements  of  education — the 
development  of  the  body,  of  the  feelings — may  be  trusted  wholly  to 
nature.  She  needs  but  the  opportunity.  The  embryo  of  the  chick  is 
enveloped  in  the  shell.  In  many  respects  it  would  be  fortunate  if  the 
play  life  of  the  child  could  be  similarly  enveloped  in  a  shell,  so  that 
civilization  could  not  take  away  that  which  has  been  its  means  of  develop- 
ment from  time  immemorial.  City  life  is  bringing  large  numbers  of 
children  close  together.  This  is  in  itself  not  wholly  normal;  hence, 
there  must  be  a  kind  of  supervision  of  plays  to  prevent  the  evil  effects 
of  such  undue  crowding.  This,  again,  merely  represents  the  effort  to 
supply  nature  with  her  customary  environment. 

Approximately  at  puberty,  interest  culminates  in  the  great  Anglo- 
Saxon  sports  of  baseball,  cricket,  hockey,  shinney,  basket  ball,  and  the 
like.  These  great  games  are  played  in  teams  in  which  the  individual 
is  subordinated  to  the  whole.  They  represent  a  later  evolutionary  stage 
than  do  the  games  of  the  preceding  period,  which  are  individualistic. 


SPECIAL    EXERCISES    FOR    ADOLESCENTS  47 

They  are  interesting  to  the  physician  because  of  their  physiologic  char- 
acter. They  represent  the  extreme  form  of  muscular  exercise — ex- 
treme not  only  with  reference  to  individual  efforts,  but  extreme  in 
duration.  The  extreme  example  is  found  in  football.  Not  only  does 
each  individual  make  many  efforts  of  as  powerful  a  nature  as  possible, 
but  he  makes  them  rapidly,  so  that  a  rare  degree  of  endurance  is  de* 
manded  even  in  an  ordinary  game.  A  man  without  special  training 
cannot  play  even  four  or  five  minutes  without  becoming  sore.  It  is  my 
opinion  that  these  extreme  forms  of  exercise  are  related  to  the  final 
toughening  of  the  individual  for  the  achievements  of  life.  They  rep- 
resent the  final  ripening  of  the  muscular  system  and  its  development 
into  full  functioning  ability.  They  represent  also  that  development 
of  the  large  motor  centers  of  the  brain  which  is  certainly  related  to  the 
capacity  for  continued  severe  intellectual  labor  during  subsequent 
years.  In  the  li^ht  of  its  immediate  effects,  I  do  not  believe  that  foot- 
ball is  justifiable/)  In  the  light  of  its  relatioli  to  the  development  of 
power,  I  believe  €hat  it  is  justifiable  where  it  can  be  suitably  controlled 
and  limited;  but  many  individuals  have  attained  these  same  effects 
through  severe  manual  labor  on  the  farm  or  in  the  shop  without  the 
physical  or  psychic  dangers  attending  certain  phases  of  football  play. 
It  is  only  fair  to  add  that  an  analysis  of  football  accidents  shows  that 
they  are  in  the  main  due  to  (i)  play  ing -when  one  is  not  in  training;  or 
(2)  allowing  boys  to  play  against  those  notably  heavier  than  them- 
selves; or  (3)  allowing  those  to  play  who  are  too  young,  too  slight,  too 
weak,  or  too  awkward.  Mass  plays  and  tripping  always  involve  some 
degree  of  danger.  In  some  way,  however,  every  adolescent  ought  to  do 
muscular  labor  of  considerable  severity  for  a  considerable  period.  Is 
it  not  interesting  to  note  that  these  severe  exercises  are  brought  about 
instinctively  by  nature  through  the  tremendous  interest  in  athletic 
sports  during  these  adolescent  years,  and  that  these  activities  take  the 
general  form  of  the  combats  of  savage  tribal  life? 

After  the  age  of  twelve,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  physician  in  many 
cases  to  order  special  exercise.  The  intellectual  life  is  commencing  to 
be  of  dominant  interest  to  boys  and  girls.  Public  opinion,  as  well  as  the 
lack  of  opportunity,  may  prevent  them  from  gratifying  the  instincts 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  lead  to  bodily  development.  The  physician  will 
often  have  to  say  that  the  boy  or  the  girl  must  be  given  opportunity  for 
exercise.  Out-of-doors  exercise  is  best,  and  it  should  be  more  or  less  in 
accord  with  the  native  interests  of  the  period.  Camping  out  in  primitive 
style,  with  hunting  and  fishing  and  many  other  savage  occupations, 


48  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

seems  to  be  an  ideal  form  of  physical  life.  But  that  which  is  most  desir- 
able is  usually  least  possible ;  it  often  happens  that  for  lack  of  place  and 
time  the  individual  cannot  take  advantage  of  the  natural  instincts. 
Under  these  conditions,  what  is  to  be  done?  The  individual  must  work 
in  a  gymnasium.  Under  what  conditions  will  the  best  results  be  at- 
tained ?  How  may  the  exercises  be  so  ordered  as  to  bring  the  greatest 
advantage  to  the  individual  ? 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the   characteristics  of  gym- 
nasium work  when  done  predominantly  from  the  standpoint  of  health. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  HYGIENIC   GYMNASTICS 

,  ^  •. 

1.  The  day's  exercise  should  begin  and  end  either  with  work  for  the 
smaller  groups  of  muscles,  or  with  graded  work  for  the  larger  groups  of 
muscles.     Thus,  the  heart  and  lungs  are  gradually  led  up  to  and  away 
from  the  severest  effort.     The  muscles  themselves  are  not  suddenly 
called  on  for  their  most  intense  work.    This  is  the  fundamental  idea  con- 
tained in  the  Swedish  "  day's  order."    It  may  be  true  that  we  terminate 
actual  gymnasium  work  with  the  maximum  of  effort,  as  by  a  run,  or  a 
basket  ball  game ;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  following  this  is  the 
walk  to  the  dressing-room,  the  bath,  the  rubbing  down,  the  quiet  dress- 
ing and  sitting  around,  and  the  going  about  one's  business.     The  entire 
curve  showing  the  intensity  of  effort  must  take  these  details  into  con- 
sideration. 

2.  Each  part  of  the  body  should  be  exercised  in  general  according  to 
its  natural  function.     This  refers  to  the  quantity  as  well  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  work.     Thus,  the  great  muscular  groups  of  the  body  should 
do  a  large  amount  of  hard  work.     The  heart  and  lungs  should  be  called 
on  for  activity,  the  arms  and  shoulders-  should  be  called  on  for  skill  and 
quick  work,  the  legs  for  power  and  endurance.     As  the  individual  ad- 
vances in  strength  and  power  from  year  to  year,  more  and  more  weight 
may  be  handled  to  advantage.     This  is  the  normal  progress  of  individual 
growth  and  development,  and  no  absolute  standard  can  be  fixed.    While 
in  the  individual  unaccustomed  to  exercise,  the  body  should  not  be  sup- 
ported by  the  arms  for  any  length  of  time,  the  same  caution  does  not 
necessarily  apply  after  one  or  two  years  of  effort.     In  most  cases  this 
prohibition  would  take  away  work  on  the  high  horizontal  bar  from  the 
first  year. 

.  3.  Each  individual  muscular  effort  should  be  well  within  the  capacity 
of  the  performer.  It  not  only  should  be  absolutely  moderate,  it  should 
be  relatively  moderate.  That  which  is  moderate  for  a  strong  man  would 


HYGIENIC    GYMNASTICS  49 

be  excessive  for  a  weak  man.  For  a  man  who  has  just  come  to  the 
gymnasium  moderate  work  would  be  needed,  which  would  be  absurdly 
insufficient  for  a  man  who  had  done  a  year  or  two  of  work. 

4.  There  should  be  a  large  number  of  individual  exercises.     Thus, 
the  sum  total  of  the  work  done  may  be  considerable.     The  stronger  the 
person,  the  stronger  the  effort  that  he  can  make  to  advantage.     It  is 
thus  important  in  invalids  to  begin  with  minute  doses,  and  to  proceed 
by  steadily  increasing  stages  toward  work  that  will  demand  and  obtain 
the  larger  activity  desired.     Again,  the  individual  thoroughly  accus- 
tomed to  exercise  will  derive  but  little  benefit  from  such  minute  doses; 
the  doses  must  be  adapted  to  the  degree  of  strength  and  habituation  of 
the  individual. 

5.  So  far  as  possible,  the  exercise  should  correspond  to  the  psychic 
needs  of  the  stage  of  development  of  the  individual  who  is  exercising. 
Thus,  the  needs  of  adolescents  are  not  the  same  as  those  of  business 
or  professional  men.     The  fundamental  psychic  characteristics  of  each 
group  must  be  constantly  kept  in  mind.    The  play  of  adolescents  repre- 
sents great  needs  that  cannot  safely  be  ignored,  as  they  are  intimately 
associated  with  the  deepest  interest  of  the  individual.     Whenever  it  is 
possible  to  introduce  simple  elements  of  competition  with  adolescents, 
it  is  well  to  consider  the  advisability  of  doing  so,  as  this  is  the  natural 
period  for  competition,  and  the  great'  interest  that  is  aroused  in  con- 
tests should  be  jealously  guarded. 

6.  It  is  important  that  exercise  be  considered  constantly  with  refer- 
ence to  the  position  of  the  trunk.     For  this  great  lesson  we  are  indebted, 
as  already  stated,  to  the  Swedes.     We  cannot  afford  to  play  games  or  do 
exercises  in  which  the  trunk  is  thrown  into  a  position  that  embarrasses 
the  heart  or  lungs.     The  organic  functions  of  respiration  and  circulation 
are  too  important  to  be  interfered  with  in  any  way.     It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  body  tends  to  assume  during  rest  the  position  it  took 
during  exercise;   and  we  must  constantly  endeavor  during  exercise  to 
keep  the  trunk,  the  ribs,  and  the  spine  in  that  position  which  we  wish 
them  to  maintain  all  the  time. 

7.  The  degree  of  memory  and  attention  demanded  from  the  pupils 
should  be  minimized.    Thus,  they  should  not  do  much  work  that  demands 
the  committing  to  memory  of  long  series  of  exercises.     The  teachers 
should  constantly  do  the  remembering  for  their  pupils,  teaching  the 
exercises  by  example  rather  than  requiring  the  pupil  to  remember  them. 
The  rest  of  two  or  three  seconds  between  the  movements  of  the  dumb- 
bell drill  to  observe  a  new  exercise  is  beneficial  to  the  heart,  which  beats 
rapidly  during  such  work  in  most  individuals.     The  degree  of  attention 


50  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

demanded  should  be  enough  to  keep  the  mind  from  other  work,  and  yet 
should  not  be  of  the  strained  or  voluntary  character  that  is  demanded 
in  following  intricate  calisthenics. 

School  Gymnastics 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  consider  briefly  the  characteristics  of 
such  school  gymnastics  as  should  be  universally  introduced.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  normal  development  of  the  body  may  be  left  to 
nature  if  a  suitable  environment  be  provided.  The  demands  of  school 
life  are  that  children  shall  remain  measurably  still  for  five  hours  a  day, 
most  of  the  time  seated  at  a  desk.  In  most  schools  the  desks  are  not 
adapted  to  the  length  of  the  spinal  column  and  of  the  arms  and  legs  of 
the  individual,  so  that  unsymmetrical  sitting  postures  are  constantly 
assumed,  and  growth  of  the  body  is  correspondingly  unsymmetrical. 
The  constant  sitting  still  deprives  the  muscles  of  that  activity  which  we 
have  shown  to  be  natural  to  childhood.  By  insisting  on  quiet,  we  have 
interfered  with  nature  in  two  ways:  first,  by  taking  away  a  great  deal  of 
time  that  she  usually  gives  to  exercise;  and,  second,  by  keeping  the 
child  for  long  hours  in  a  more  or  less  unnatural  position.  The  aim  of 
school  gymnastics  must  be  to  remedy  these  two  alterations  of  the  en- 
vironment which  are  rendered  necessary  by  the  demands  of  civilization. 
This  combating  of  the  effect  of  the  school  desk  upon  the  body  can  best 
be  done  by  a  few  minutes'  vigorous  exercise  of  the  large  groups  of  mus- 
cles at  frequent  intervals.  Except  when  the  ventilation  in  the  building 
is  perfect,  the  windows  should  be  opened  at  the  end  of  every  hour  and 
the  pupils  should  all  be  given  vigorous  exercise  for  two  minutes.  These 
exercises  should  be  especially  directed  to  the  maintaining  of  a  correct 
carriage  and  to  the  vigorous  exercise  of  the  large  muscles  of  the  back  and 
thighs.  There  will  naturally  be  introduced  accessory  movements  of  the 
arms  and  legs  to  add  variety  and  increase  the  interest.  The  essentials 
of  school  gymnastics  are  correct  carriage  of  the  trunk  and  exercises 
calculated  to  strengthen  the  back  and  thighs.  This  will  involve  increased 
cardiac  and  respiratory  activity.  Such  a  scheme  of  exercise  as  this  does 
not  involve  difficult  exercises  nor  expert  teachers ;  they  can  be  carried  on 
by  the  regular  teachers.  They  do  not  make  a  very  heavy  demand  on  the 
time  given  to  definite  intellectual  achievement. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  attempt  to  secure  by  school  gymnastics  com- 
plete motor  education  must  fail  because  of  the  limited  time  that  under 
the  best  of  conditions  can  be  given  to  gymnastics  during  the  school 
period,  as  well  as  because  of  the  limited  range  of  material  available  as 
compared  with  that  available  during  play.  The  complicated  motor 


TRAINING    OF    ATHLETES    FOR    CONDITION  51 

development  which  forms  the  basis  of  later  skill  in  life,  even  including 
that  of  an  intellectual  character,  comes  chiefly  through  the  development 
of  the  hand,  lips,  tongue,  and  larynx.  The  development  of  the  hand, 
as  shown  by  Dr.  Seguin  and  others,  is  of  the  greatest  importance;  hence, 
in  motor  education,  manual  training,  Sloyd,  marbles,  work  with  jack- 
knife,  tools,  and  machinery, — all  seem  to  have  a  definite  and  important 
place.  They  are  basal  to  education  in  the  individual  as  they  have  been 
in  the  race.  The  object  of  school  gymnastics  is  to  combat  the  effects  of 
long  sitting  at  school  desks.  For  true  motor  education,  we  must  de- 
pend on  play  and  manual  training.  Children  out  of  school  hours  must 
be  given  full  opportunity  to  play.  In  school  they  must  be  given  oppor- 
tunity to  combat  the  special  conditions  presented  by  sitting  still  at  the 
school  desk.  Scoliosis  is  far  more  common  among  girls  than  among 
boys.  It  is  rarely  found  among  those  who  have  a  fair  degree  of  muscular 
development  of  the  back.  Such  simple  school  exercises  as  we  have 
proposed  will  in  my  judgment  largely  prevent  scoliosis  in  the  developing 
child. 


TRAINING  MEDICALLY  CONSIDERED 

It  is  no  part  of  this  treatise  to  consider  the  general  subject  of  training 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  athlete.  We  aim  to  consider  those  conditions 
with  which  the  physician  may  have  to  deal.  The  subject  may  be  con- 
sidered under  four  general  heads:  (i)  The  physical  condition  of  the 
individual;  (2)  the  special  athletic  habit  that  is  to  be  formed;  (3)  the  mus- 
cular power  involved  in  the  exercise;  (4)  the  endurance  demanded.  In 
training  for  any  object  whatever,  these  four  points  must  be  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind.  Each  of  them  will  affect  markedly  the  character  and 
quantity  of  the  work  that  the  individual  should  do. 

i.  Condition. — It  occurs  frequently  that  an  athlete  is  overworked 
so  that  there  results  a  condition  technically  known  as  'staleness' — *.  e., 
the  expenditure  of  the  body  exceeds  the  income.  The  income  of  the 
body  is  related  not  only  to  the  amount  of  food  ingested,  but  also  to  the 
capacity  of  the  several  cells  of  the  body  to  convert  this  food  into  active 
protoplasm.  The  individual  can  always  eat  enough  if  the  food  is  avail- 
able; but  all  individuals  sooner  or  later  find  a  limit  to  their  capacity  of 
converting  food  into  protoplasm.  I  do  not  know  what  the  nature  of 
this  limitation  is,  but  believe  it  to  be  fundamentally  a  neural  one.  This 
condition  of  staleness  will  come  far  more  quickly  in  some  persons  than 
in  others.  Its  first  premonitory  sign  is  a  decrease  in  weight.  Less  buoy- 
ancy is  felt ;  work  is  less  enjoyable;  each  effort  takes  a  greater  exertion  of 


52  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

the  will.  This  matter  of  condition  is  one  of  supreme  importance  from  the 
medical  as  well  as  from  the  athletic  standpoint.  Every  athlete  should 
come  to  his  contest  at  the  very  summit  of  his  ability  and  feelings.  This 
he  cannot  possibly  do  if  he  is  overworked.  Good  feelings  are  indicative 
of  good  strength.  The  slight  extra  degree  of  skill  that  can  be  secured 
by  excessive  training  will  never  compensate  for  the  loss  that  comes 
to  the  one  who  is  overtrained.  If  the  overtraining  is  serious,  break- 
down may  result;  boils  are  apt  to  form,  and  diarrhea  sometimes  sets  in. 
In  former  days  athletes  were  far  more  apt  to  be  overtrained  than  they 
are  at  present;  but  even  now  nervous  men  are  prone  to  be  overtrained. 
One  should  do  every  day  a  little  less,  rather  than  a  little  more  work  than 
he  can  recover  from  at  night.  It  is  a  common  error  of  beginners  to  do  all 
that  is  possible  every  day,  and  to  endeavor  by  force  of  will  to  make  up 
for  lack  of  condition.  Day  after  day  they  force  themselves  through  the 
exercises  that  have  been  laid  down  for  them,  even  though  the  muscles 
remain  sore,  and  they  feel  increasingly  disinclined  for  the  athletic  work. 

A  man  should  feel  like  doing  his  work.  He  may  overwork  in  two 
ways :  by  doing  so  much  in  one  day  as  to  demand  several  days  for  recuper- 
ation; or,  more  commonly,  by  doing  each  day  a  trifle  more  than  he  ought 
to  do.  In  the  latter  case  he  adds  each  day  a  trifle  to  the  fatigue,  and 
soon  comes  into  a  state  in  which  he  is  liable  to  colds  or  any  disease  that 
may  be  prevalent.  His  whole  system  is  in  a  condition  of  depleted 
vitality.  He  has  but  little  power  of  resistance  either  to  unfavorable 
environment  or  disease.  Overtraining  is  rendered  more  probable  when 
emotional  or  mental  strain  is  added  to  physical  work.  It  is  a  common 
and  advantageous  practice  for  the  athlete  to  refrain  almost  entirely  from 
severe  exercise  for  one,  two,  or  three  days  immediately  before  a  contest; 
he  thus  comes  to  it  with  the  greatest  degree  of  freshness  and  vigor. 

2.  Habit. — In  every  athletic  exercise  a  certain  degree  of  skill  is  de- 
manded, the  acquisition  of  which  consists  in  the  formation  of  certain 
habits.  A  man  will  never  do  his  best  in  any  sport  until  he  has  learned 
to  do  it  unconsciously,  until  he  is  able  to  put  his  whole  attention  into  the 
muscular  effort.  In  the  running  high  jump,  for  instance,  so  long  as  a 
man  has  to  pay  attention  to  getting  the  right  step,  to  making  the  spring 
from  precisely  the  right  spot,  to  turning  his  body  at  the  critical  moment, 
he  will  not  jump  high.  When,  however,  he  has  learned  all  of  these 
points  so  that  he  does  not  have  to  think  about  them,  he  can  put  his  whole 
effort  into  the  jump  itself.  He  will  then  do  his  best.  His  jumping  must 
become  largely  an  automatic  process.  His  mind  must  be  reserved  for 
the  effort  itself.  This  formation  of  habits  is  entirely  a  neural  process; 
it  does  not  relate  to  strength.  The  habit  is  formed  not  by  a  few  extreme 


TRAINING    FOR    CONDITION  53 

efforts  but  by  many  moderate  ones.  This  illustration  from  the  high 
jump  is  not  unique;  the  same  general  truth  underlies  all  sports.  Even 
in  such  a  matter  as  long-distance  running,  the  gait  must  become  auto- 
matic before  the  individual  can  do  his  best.  An  illustration  of  the  way 
in  which  habits  are  formed  may  be  taken  from  the  sport  already  referred 
to — the  running  high  jump.  Let  the  stick  be  placed  at  such  a  height 
that  it  can  be  easily  cleared  by  the  athlete,  and  let  him  make  this  jump 
a  large  number  of  times  each  day.  Eventually  starting  from  a  certain 
distance  from  the  stick,  the  athlete  will  find  that  his  feet  come  with 
automatic  precision  into  just  the  right  place  and  that  his  last  stride 
will  carry  him  into  exactly  the  position  for  jumping.  Gradually  the 
stick  may  be  raised,  but  it  should  always  be  well  within  the  jumping 
ability  of  the  performer.  During  the  early  part  of  the  training,  the  en- 
deavor to  jump  as  high  as  possible  will  surely  get  the  athlete  into  bad 
habits.  What  is  imperative  in  the  early  stages  is  the  formation  of  style. 
This  can  only  be  done  by  constant,  persistent  repetition.  Gradually  the 
athlete  will  be  able  to  put  in  increasing  effort,  and  thus  to  jump  his  best, 
and  still  preserve  his  style.  It  is  the  custom  among  the  uninitiated  to 
jump  as  high  as  possible  every  day.  The  bulk  of  the  trials  thus 
are  at  heights  that  are  not  cleared,  with  the  result  that  the  individual 
never  is  able  to  jump  as  high  as  he  should  and  as  he  could  learn  to  jump 
by  the  other  method.  These  general- principles  apply  to  all  branches  of 
sport  in  which  skill  is  required. 

3.  Strength. — The  development  of  strength  must  follow  that  of  habit. 
Strength,  like  habit,  requires  constant  and  persistent  exercise,  and  is 
acquired  by  performing  many  moderate  movements  rather  than  a  few 
excessive  ones.     The  development  of  the  muscle-groups  involved  in  any 
given  form  of  activity  is  achieved  by  the  daily  persistent  exercise  of  that 
group  rather  than  by  occasional  excessive  exercise.     In  most  athletics 
sufficient  strength  is  acquired  by  practising  the  exercise  itself;  occasion- 
ally— as,  for  example,  in  throwing  the  hammer — special  work  can  with 
advantage  be  given  for  the  development  of  the  back  and  the  sides  of 
the  trunk. 

4.  Endurance. — This  relates  not  only  to  capacity  for  long-continued 
exercises,  such  as  long-distance  running,  but  also  for  the  repetition  of  a 
single  exercise  like  that  of  high  jumping,  which  must  be  repeated  a  great 
many  times.  It  involves  respiratory  and  cardiac  capacity,  and,  equally 
with  these,  power  from  the  motor  centers.     Endurance  in  long-distance 
running  is  most  often  found  in  those  with  long  trunks.     This  I  believe 
is  related  to  the  larger  space  afforded  for  the  heart  and  lungs.     Let  us 
picture  the  central  operations  in  a  man  beginning  to  run  rapidly:  the 


54  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

large  and  powerful  muscles  of  the  legs,  thighs,  and  trunk  are  contracting 
with  great  force  and  frequency.  Steps  are  being  taken  approximately 
at  the  rate  of  four  a  second.  Each  step  is  about  six  feet  in  length.  At 
this  rate  he  is  running  100  yards  in  12  J  seconds.  The  large  muscles  in- 
volved press  the  blood  contained  in  the  veins  toward  the  heart,  which  in 
turn  immediately  contracts  with  greater  vigor  and  rapidity,  forcing  a 
return  current  of  blood  into  the  arteries.  The  blood  from  the  muscles 
is  thrown  into  the  lungs.  The  pulmonary  capillaries  are  dilated  a  trifle 
more  than  usual,  which  limits  somewhat  the  total  superficial  area  of  ex- 
posure to  the  contained  air — a  condition  of  temporary  embarrassment 
supervenes,  known  as  being  'out  of  breath.'  The  muscles  of  the  legs 
soon  ache,  and  the  runner  lessens  his  speed.  The  heart  beats  with  in- 
creased rapidity,  gradually  a  balance  in  respiration  and  circulation  is 
restored,  and  the  individual  comes  to  what  is  known  as  'second  wind/ 
One  of  the  objects  in  training  is  to  make  this  preliminary  process  as  rapid 
as  possible.  It  is  possible  for  most  athletes  to  reach  a  state  of  training 
in  which  there  is  no  initial  embarrassment.  The  whole  apparatus  meets 
all  the  demands  made  upon  it  and  operates  with  force  and  vigor  until 
the  motor  centers  are  too  much  exhausted  to  permit  of  the  exercise  being 
continued.  Such  endurance  is  acquired  only  by  practice.  Generally 
that  practice  is  best  which  is  most  nearly  analogous  to  the  exercise  in- 
volved. In  training  for  rowing,  endurance  is  often  acquired  by  running, 
because  running  demands  less  attention  than  rowing.  If  the  individual 
rowed  enough  to  gain  all  the  endurance  that  is  needed,  he  would  probably 
do  the  latter  part  of  it  in  a  slipshod  way.  This  would  make  toward  the 
production  of  bad  habits.  There  should  be  no  rowing  except  when  it  is 
done  with  the  very  best  possible  stroke.  This  general  principle  of  doing 
exercises  only  when  they  can  be  done  best  is  an  important  one,  and  must 
constantly  be  kept  in  mind. 


SYSTEMS  OF  GYMNASTICS 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  been  considering  the  general  principles 
underlying  the  use  of  muscular  exercise  as  a  therapeutic  agent.  Let 
us  now  examine  in  brief  the  various  gymnastic  systems. 

German  Gymnastics. — In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  there  was 
much  interest  aroused  in  educational  circles  through  the  work  of  Guts- 
muths,  who  was  a  broad-minded,  scholarly  teacher  of  gymnastics. 
Early  in  this  century,  F.  L.  Jahn  began  a  most  active  propaganda  in 


GERMAN    GYMNASTIC    SYSTEMS  55 

favor  of  general  physical  training.  He  was  a  patriot  and  felt  that  the 
salvation  of  the  nation  depended  upon  the  building  up  of  a  strong 
people,  and  in  physical  training  he  saw  a  major  means  to  this  end.  His 
primary  interest  in  physical  training  was  a  national  or  political  one. 
He  is  known  as  'the  father  of  German  gymnastics.'  His  work  was 
largely  based  upon  that  of  Gutsmuths.  The  exercises  used  and  the 
apparatus  devised  were  chiefly  of  the  spontaneous  kind :  running,  climb- 
ing, throwing,  jumping,  wrestling,  sparring,  swimming,  were  all  vigor- 
ously practised.  There  gradually  arose  the  pieces  of  gymnastic  ap- 
paratus— the  German  horse,  parallel  bars,  and  horizontal  bar.  Teachers 
and  pupils  alike  strove  to  invent  new  exercises.  There  was  no  special 
physiologic  study  of  the  effects  of  these  exercises.  The  empirical  result 
was  seen  to  be  good.  A  little  later  in  the  century  a  pedagogue  arose  by 
the  name  of  Spiess,  who  systematized  and  classified  all  of  these  exer- 
cises, particularly  all  the  exercises  that  could  be  carried  on  in  the  school- 
room. He  is  known  as  'the  father  of  German  school  gymnastics.'  His 
influence  has  been  profound  upon  the  whole  system  of  German  gym- 
nastics, removing  them  from  the  plane  of  natural  and  spontaneous  exer- 
cise to  the  rigid  observance  of  schemes  and  plans.  The  exercises  were 
arranged  with  reference  to  their  adaptability  to  the  school-room  rather 
than  upon  a  physiologic  basis. 

In  the  middle  of  this  century  there  was  a  considerable  influx  into 
this  country  of  Germans — embracing  political  exiles  and  others — who 
maintained  their  individuality.  They  organized  societies  for  the  carry- 
ing on  of  German  gymnastics,  and  the  German  Turnvereins  of  to-day 
are  the  continuation  of  these  societies.  They  have  gradually  departed 
somewhat  from  the  corresponding  societies  in  Germany,  but  not  in  essen- 
tial matters.  Much  emphasis  is  laid  on  exercises  performed  with  vari- 
ous types  of  heavy  apparatus.  Thus,  we  see  a  great  deal  of  work  upon 
the  horizontal  bar,  the  parallel  bars,  the  German  horse,  and  the  like, 
which  when  unwisely  used  result  in  the  physique  and  carriage  of  the 
so-called  typical  gymnast  :Nhis  shoulders  are  often  pulled  forward  through 
the  overdevelopment  of  the  pectorals ;  his  chest  is  not  large  but  has  large 
muscular  masses  upon  it;  his  shoulders  and  arms  are  superbly  developed, 
his  legs  only  passably  so.  His  carriage  in  walking  or  running  is  usually 
rather  heavy.  In  all  exercises  involving  the  support  of  his  own  body  by 
the  hands  he  is  thoroughly  at  home,  while  in  running,  jumping,  pole- 
vaulting,  boxing,  wrestling,  and  particularly  in  exercises  of  endurance, 
he  is  uncomfortable.  The  gymnasium  exercises  of  a  given  individual  in 
the  course  of  an  evening's  work  are  arranged  primarily  upon  physiologic 
principles.  The  German  Turnvereins  have  been  more  successful  than 


56  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

any  other  organization,  except  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations, 
in  maintaining  institutions  for  the  carrying-on  of  popular  gymnastics. 
The  character  of  their  work  is  related  to  the  German  temperament — 
American  young  men  do  not  usually  remain  members  of  their  societies 
long.  German  gymnastics  are  essentially  national  in  character;  they 
involve  patience  and  thoroughness,  they  demand  hard  work  and  con- 
tinuous effort ;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  afford  the  opportunity  for  the 
kind  of  sport  which  is  the  national  heritage  of  the  English-speaking 
people.  The  German  is  almost  exclusively  individualistic  in  hO&:  gym-l 
\  nasties  and  athletics,  while  the  Englishman  and  American  go  in  very 
largely  for  team  games. 

Swedish  Gymnastics. — Early  in  the  century  a  man  of  rare  scholastic 
ability,  P.  H.  Ling,  awoke  to  the  importance  of  physical  training, 
particularly,  though  indirectly,  through  the  work  of  Gutsmuths.  He 
eventually  located  in  Stockholm,  and  worked  out  several  different 
schemes  of  exercise.  The  one  with  which  his  name  has  been  most 
prominently  identified  was  a  plan  of  exercises  for  schools — the  so- 
called  Swedish  educational  gymnastics.  He  also  laid  the  basis  for  the 
Swedish  movement  cure,  Swedish  military  gymnastics,  etc.  The 
groundwork  for  this  scheme  was  physiologic.  Exercises  always  fol- 
low each  other  in  a  definite  order,  the  reason  for  this  order  being  their 
effect  upon  the  body  in  various  ways.  The  plan  is  strictly  progressive, 
the  movements  being  arranged  in  groups  in  a  sequence  of  difficulty. 
Thus,  if  we  should  put  in  ten  parallel  columns  the  ten  chief  groups  of 
exercise,  and  arrange  the  exercises  in  each  column  in  the  order  of  their 
difficulty,  beginning  with  the  easiest  and  ending  with  the  most  diffi- 
cult, the  first  exercise  of  each  group  would  form  the  first  day's  ex- 
ercises, the  second  day  wJuld  be  devoted  to  the  second  exercise  in 
each  group,  the  third  day  to  the  third  exercise,  and  so  on.  Thus,  each 
day  would  see  an  advance  upon  the  preceding  day,  and  yet  the  sequence 
of  the  exercises  and  their  physiologic  relations  to  one  another  would  not 
alter  from  day  to  day.  The  curve  of  effort  was  studied  most  carefully. 
The  pupils  were  all  to  be  exercised  in  the  regular  dress  of  the  school-room 
between  two  study  periods;  thus,  they  could  not  exercise  sufficiently 
to  make  them  perspire,  which  would  necessitate  a  change  of  clothing. 
The  exercises  had  to  be  adapted  largely  to  the  school-room.  The  bio- 
logic science  of  Ling's  time  was  exceedingly  crude;  and  for  this  reason, 
as  well  as  on  account  of  the  characteristic  of  Ling's  mind,  much  of  his 
physiology  is  fantastic. 

The  three  essentials  of  Swedish  gymnastics  are: 


SWEDISH    GYMNASTICS  57 

1.  The  day's  order,  which  is  the  physiologic  sequence  of  the  exer- 
cises carried  on  each  day. 

2.  The  gymnastic  progression,  which  is  the  sequence  of  the  move- 
ments from  day  to  day. 

Of  these  two  I  have  already  spoken. 

3.  The  movements  are  always  done  to  word  of  command,  and  are 
not  learned  by  imitation.     The  reason  for  this  last  point  is  that  the  will 
of  the  pupil  may  be  wholly  engaged,  and  thus  better  execution  secured. 

Ling  intended,  and  most  of  his  pupils  have  maintained,  that  these 
educational  gymnastics  form  a  complete  system  of  physical  education 
designed  to  bring  all  of  the  bodily  powers  to  healthy  maturity.  From 
this  standpoint  Swedish  gymnastics  are  not  defensible,  for  they  lay 
insufficient  emphasis  upon  endurance,  that  capacity  of  heart  and  lung^N 
which  we  have  seen  to  be  of  great  importance.  Furthermore,  they 
require  the  constant  voluntary  attention  of  the  pupil,  and  are  thus  as 
far  removed  as  possible  from  free  play.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that 
Swedish  gymnastics  were  never  designed  to  take  the  place  of  free  out- 
door play. 

The  most  modern  authority  on  these  gymnastics,  however,  has  taken. 
a  far  more  defensible  position  in  regard  to  Swedish  gymnastics  than 
have  his  predecessors.  He  maintains  that  the  fundamental  object  of  » 
the  school  gymnastics  is  a  corrective  one,  designed  to  combat  the  effects 
of  the  school  desk  upon  the  organism.  He  maintains  that  sitting  at  a 
desk  four  or  five  hours  a  day  develops  a  tendency  for  the  spine  and 
shoulders  to  assume  an  abnormal  position,  and  that  Swedish  gymnas- 
tics have  their  chief  claim  to  consideration  because  of  the  stress  laid 
upon  the  proper  carriage  and  movements  of  the  trunk.  He  also  admits 
that  Swedish  gymnastics  should  lay  no  claim  to  be  a  universal  plan 
of  neuromuscular  education. 

The  details  of  the  day's  order  and  of  the  gymnastic  progression  have 
also  been  modified  in  ways  that  the  earlier  teachers  of  Swedish  gymnas- 
tics would  have  called  radical.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  these 
details  of  Swedish  gymnastics,  the  following  general  conclusions  will 
probably  be  accepted  by  most  authorities : 

1.  That  Swedish  gymnastics  do  secure  good  carriage  of  the  trunk; 
and  that  they  are  adapted  to  combating  the  evil  effects  of  the  school  desk 
upon  the  pupil. 

2.  That  they  do  demand  close  attention  from  the  pupil,  and  hence 
must  not  be  regarded  as  in  any  sense  recreative  in  their  character. 
They  cannot  take  the  place  of  play.     They  demand  the  same  quality 
that  study  does — attention. 


58  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

3.  That  they  do  not  afford,  nor  is  it  claimed  that  they  afford,  a  general 
plan  of  physical  education. 

English  Physical  Exercise. — In  considering  this  different  type  of 
gymnastic  exercise,  we  shall  inevitably  appear  to  place  Swedish  gym- 
nastics and  English  gymnastics  upon  the  same  plane,  whereas  they  can- 
not justly  be  placed  upon  such  a  plane.  The  German  gymnastics  are 
popular  and  universal.  They  are  carried  on  not  only  in  the  schools,  but 
by  the  German  Turnvereins  wherever  German  people  are  found ;  whereas 
the  Swedish  gymnastics  are  largely  the  product  of  governmental  activity. 
There  is  a  strong,  new  movement  in  Sweden  for  carrying  on  popular 
gymnastics;  but  the  popular  characteristics  of  these  gymnastics  are 
more  like  the  German  system  than  they  are  like  the  Swedish  educa- 
tional gymnastics.  In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  the  exercise  is 
largely  carried  on  not  for  the  sake  of  the  exercise,  but  for  the  sake  of 
the  sport.  To  be  sure,  there  are  gymnastic  societies.  For  many  years 
there  has  flourished  in  London  a  German  Gymnastic  Society,  which  has 
done  splendid  work,  and  there  has  gradually  grown  up  a  school  of 
English  gymnasts  who  follow  the  German  lines  very  closely.  There 
is  also  another  group  who  have  followed  the  Swedish  principles,  and 
are  carrying  on  a  more  or  less  successful  work. 

For  all  that,  the  great  bulk  of  the  physical  training  carried  on  in 
England  is  not  to  be  characterized  as  gymnastics  at  all.  The  English 
school-boy,  with  his  long  vacations  and  frequent  holidays,  improves 
his  time  not  by  gymnastics,  but  by  athletics.  His  characteristic  games 
and  sports  and  exercises  are  running,  jumping,  throwing,  wrestling, 
boxing,  cricket,  football,  lawn  tennis,  hunting,  fishing,  horseback- 
riding,  rowing,  mountain-climbing,  and  so  on.  These  exercises  furnish 
conditions  more  similar  to  those  under  which  the  body  was  developed  in 
evolutionary ^times  than  do  the  more  or  less  artificial  exercises  of  the 
gymnasium.  'Each  part  of  the  body  is  exercised  in  accordance  with  the 
way  in  which  it  is  developed;  the  heavy  work  is  done  by  the  legs,  work 
demanding  speed  and  agility  is  done  by  the  arms ;  the  arms  do  not  sup- 
port the  weight  of  the  body  for  long  periods  as  they  often  have  to  do  in 
systems  of  gymnastics.  It  is  true  in  theory  that  in  the  gymnasium  all 
of  these  exercises — or  at  least  exercises  demanding  similar  qualities  of 
body  and  mind^— may  be  carried  on ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  to  realize  this  aim. 

Thus,  if  we  compare  the  typical  all-round  German  gymnast  with  the 
typical  all-round  English  university  athlete,  we  find  a  real  contrast. 
The  typical  English  athlete  is  the  man  who  has  never  given  particular 


GYMNASTS    AND    ATHLETES  59 

attention  to  muscular  development  of  any  kind.  He  is  fairly  strong, 
is  erect  and  graceful.  He  is  a  fleet  runner,  and  has  splendid  endur- 
ance. He  rides  horseback;  can  spar  and  wrestle.  He  has  played  his 
game  of  football,  and  has  rowed  on  one  of  the  many  crews  in  his 
university.  He  is  quick,  hardy,  can  take  care  of  himself  in  an  emer- 
gency, is  used  to  handling  himself  in  a  crowd.  He  cannot  do  any  par- 
ticular gymnastic  feats  with  skill,  nor  is  he  much  interested  in  them. 
During  later  life  he  will  drop  his  active  participation  in  most  of  the  more 
strenuous  sports;  but  he  will  ride,  play  golf,  swim,  row,  and  will  always 
maintain  a  keen  interest  in  these  things.  The  typical  gymnast  who  has 
worked  for  a  period  of  years  in  a  gymnasium  has  powerful  arms  and 
shoulders ;  the  individual  fibers  of  the  muscles  stand  out  prominently ;  he 
has  a  powerful  grip.  The  muscles  upon  his  chest  and  shoulder-blades 
are  prominent.  His  chest  appears  large;  but  this  may  be  due  rather  to 
excessive  muscle  than  to  the  position  of  the  ribs;  the  thorax  is  rather 
flat  from  repeated  severe  exertion  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  The 
muscles  of  the  legs  are  vigorous,  but  are  light  in  proportion  to  the 
development  of  the  shoulders  and  arms.  He  can  do  almost  any- 
thing on  the  apparatus  when  suspended  by  his  arms,  but  he  cannot 
run  for  long  distances,  and  is  not  graceful  as  a  walker  or  jumper. 
He  is  not  particularly  interested  in  athletics;  football  he  regards  as 
brutal.  He  is  not  accustomed  to  handling  himself  in  a  crowd.  All 
his  exercises  for  years  have  been  with  reference  to  handling  himself  as 
an  object  rather  than  with  handling  other  things  or  persons  as  objects. 
The  fundamental  difference  between  gymnastics  and  athletics  appears 
to  be  that  in  athletics  the  results  to  be  sought  are  objective,  they  re- 
late to  number — as  to  space  in  jumping,  time  in  running,  etc. ;  whereas, 
in  gymnastics  they  relate  more  to  the  form  in  which  the  movement  is 
done  and  hence  are  subjective.  The  athlete  competes  against  time  and 
space — the  gymnast  in  self-control. 

Delsarte. — The  system  of  gymnastics  which  is  known  by  this  name 
is  one  of  the  most  unsatisfactory  to  discuss  that  the  teacher  meets. 
Delsarte  was  a  Parisian;  his  aim  was  to  train  the  individual  so  as  to  be 
able  to  express  the  most  fully  by  means  of  the  body  all  emotion  and 
thought.  He  devised  no  system  of  gymnastics,  although  he  did  have 
certain  movements  which,  he  maintained,  aided  much  in  securing  per- 
fect control  of  the  body.  Thus,  his  school  is  essentially  a  school  of 
expression,  and  in  no  essential  respect  a  school  of  physical  training. 
Followers  of  his,  particularly  in  this  country,  have  taken  exercises 
taught  by  himself  or  by  his  pupils,  and  have  constructed  from  them  a 


60  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

so-called  system  of  gymnastics ;  and  one  of  the  most  prominent  has  even 
gone  so  far  as  to  teach  a  system  of  'Delsarte  for  health.'  The  work 
done  is  good,  the  results  are  excellent;  but  in  what  respects  they  can  be 
called  'Delsarte,'  I  do  not  know. 

There  has  also  grown  up  a  school  of  society  gymnastics — how  to 
stand,  how  to  sit,  how  to  go  upstairs,  how  to  carry  the  arms  and  hands, 
how  to  carry  the  head  and  neck  in  the  most  approved  style,  etc.  Much 
of  this  is  excellent,  but  cannot  rightfully  lay  claim  either  to  the  name  of 
Delsarte,  or  to  be  a  system  of  physical  training. 

Sargent. — The  most  original  contribution  to  physical  training  that 
has  been  made  in  America  is  that  of  Dr.  Dudley  A.  Sargent,  of  Harvard 
University.  There  had  previously  been  in  use  in  one  or  two  places 
machines  in  which  a  rope  passing  over  a  pulley  had  a  weight  attached 
to  one  end  and  a  handle  to  the  other.  Pulling  on  this  handle  in  various 
positions  was  utilized  as  a  means  of  muscular  exercise.  Dr.  Sargent 
took  this  undeveloped  mechanism,  and  differentiated  a  large  number  of 
machines  adapted  to  exercising  nearly  all  of  the  chief  muscular  groups  of 
the  body.  The  weight  attached  to  the  rope  is  made  variable  so  as  to  be 
suited  not  only  to  the  size  of  the  muscular  group  to  be  exercised,  but 
also  to  the  strength  of  the  one  exercising.  These  machines  have  come 
into  exceedingly  wide  use,  and  no  American  gymnasium  would  be  con- 
sidered complete  to-day  without  some  of  them.  Their  usefulness  seems 
to  .depend  upon  the  following  facts,  already  discussed  more  in  detail: 
Muscles  can  be  built  up  more  rapidly  when  exercised  separately  than 
when  large  numbers  are  exercised  together,  for  they  can  be  better  sup- 
plied with  blood  and  lymph  when  exercised  a  few  at  a  time.  The  use  of 
the  apparatus  is  not  attended  by  danger  of  any  kind ;  they  are  adapted  as 
well  to  the  exceedingly  strong  as  to  the  exceedingly  weak.  The  variety 
of  exercise  involved  is  considerable.  By  means  of  intelligent  use  of  the 
various  machines  it  is  possible  to  develop  nearly  all  of  the  muscular 
groups  of  the  body,  and  hence  many  have  maintained  that  this  is  a 
perfect  system  of  physical  training.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  general  effects  of  exercise  are  far  more  important  than  the  local 
effects  upon  individual  groups  of  muscles.  A  man  may  be  perfectly 
developed  in  the  way  suggested  and  still  have  but  comparatively  little 
strength  of  heart  or  capacity  of  lungs,  both  of  which  are  of  more  im- 
portance  than  great  muscular  development.  Then,  again,  the  develop- 
ment of  muscular  power  in  the  way  suggested  does  not  aid  particularly 
in  the  acquirement  of  those  capacities  for  co-ordination — those  acquired 
reflexes,  that  are  so  prominently  demanded  in  athletic  sports  and  that 


/*       EMERSON'S  SYSTEM  61 

give  to  the  individual  more  perfect  control  of  his  body.  Those  who  have 
developed  themselves  to  the  full  extent  by  means  of  these  machines, 
having  become  the  modern  strong  men  of  the  college,  are  not  as  a  class 
men  who  are  able  to  use  their  strength  either  for  continuous  periods — 
such  as  distance  running — or  in  ways  that  demand  skill — wrestling, 
boxing,  and  the  like.  They  have  simply  developed  great  power  of  in- 
dividual muscular  contractions. 

The  mistake  of  supposing  such  development  to  be  an  universal 
system  has  not  been  made  by  Dr.  Sargent  himself,  for  he  is  an  earnest 
advocate  of  other  forms  of  muscular  exercise  as  well. 

Emerson. — Mr.  C.  W.  Emerson  is  one  of  those  whose  work  is  far  better 
than  was  its  formulation.  Among  teachers  of  physical  training  he  is  not 
recognized  as  an  authority.  His  work  is  that  of  the  head  of  a  school  of 
oratory.  The  aim  of  his  scheme  of  gymnastics  is  to  give  to  the  individual 
control  of  the  body.  It  is  also  claimed  that  in  acquiring  this  control  a 
superb  carriage  is  cultivated  and  the  conditions  for  health  are  actively 
maintained.  His  system  consists  of  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
exercises  which  are  repeated  from  day  to  day  and  from  year  to  year. 
These  exercises  are  all  done  without  apparatus  of  any  kind.  The  two 
principles  upon  which  his  work  depends  are  not  usually  understood,  for 
they  have  not  yet  been  stated  with  the  force  which  they  deserve.  He 
was  the  first  one  in  America  to  emphasize  the  great  importance  of  the 
position  of  the  trunk  with  particular  reference  to  the  health  of  the  con- 
tained viscera.  He  has  long  maintained,  and  his  position  has  been  sus- 
tained by  modern  investigators,  that  visceral  prolapse  to  a  slight  extent 
is  more  or  less  common  in  all  individuals  whose  chests  are  relaxed  and 
whose  abdomens  are  protuberant.  He  has  shown  further  that  the  posi- 
tion in  which  the  spine  is  erect  and  the  ribs  in  the  so-called  '  active  posi- 
tion' favors  the  return  of  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  viscera  to  their 
normal  positions,  and  thus  tends  to  restore  their  normal  functions. 
The  unscientific  way  in  which  this  thought  has  been  stated  has  prevented 
its  author  from  receiving  the  credit  for  it  which  he  deserves. 

His  other  major  thought  is  that  a  comparatively  few  exercises,  all 
of  which  tend  to  give  to  the  individual  control  of  himself — poise,  balance, 
and  the  like — and  all  of  which  also  tend  to  put  and  keep  the  trunk  in  the 
best  possible  condition,  are  better  than  a  far  greater  number  of  exercises 
which  cannot  be  done  equally  well.  He  therefore  says  that  the  best 
progression  in  the  physical  training  of  the  pupil  is  a  progression  in 
excellence  in  the  performing  of  these  exercises. 

It  is  thus  seen  at  once  that  Emerson's  is  not  a  general  system  of 


62  SYSTEMS    OF    GYMNASTICS 

physical  training.  It  does  not  aim  at  cultivating  endurance  nor  does  it 
achieve  the  general  effects  of  exercise.  It  aims  to  give  good  carriage  and 
graceful  control  of  the  limbs.  These  two  ends  are  accomplished  with 
considerable  success,  as  many  of  his  pupils  will  bear  witness. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associations. — During  the  last  thirty  years 
there  has  been  gradually  developing  in  the  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociations of  the  United  States,  partly  by  the  process  of  natural  selec- 
tion and  partly  by  deliberate  effort,  a  scheme  of  gymnastics  specially 
adapted  to  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  these  Associations.  They 
now  have  about  500  gymnasiums  with  upward  of  100,000  active 
members.  The  general  plan  of  exercise  carried  on  in  most  of  these 
gymnasiums  is  as  follows :  •*•%.  |  d  Q  J^ 

1.  The  day's  work  begins  and  ends  either  with  work  for  the  smaller 
groups  of  muscles,  or  with  gradual  work  for  the  larger  groups;  thus  the 
heart  and  lungs  are  led  gradually  to  and  from  the  severest  effort.     In 
many  cases  the  actual  gymnasium  work  terminates  with  the  maximum 
of  effort,  such  as  a  run;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  is  followed 
by  the  bath  and  dressing,  rubbing  down,  and  the  like.     A  curve  that 
shall  show  the  intensity  of  effort  must  take  this  into  consideration. 

2.  It  is  the  aim  to  exercise  each  part  of  the  body  in  general  accord 
with  its  natural  functions.     This  refers  to  the  quantity  as  well  as  to  the 
character  of  the  work.     The  arms  are  not  allowed  to  support  the  body 
on  the  gymnastic  apparatus  for  long  periods  at  a  time,  and  there  is  com- 
paratively little  of  the  so-called  heavy  gymnastics. 

3.  Each  individual  muscular  effort  is  well  within  the  ability  of  the 
performer. 

4.  There  is  a  large  number  of  individual  exercises,  so  that  the  sum 
total  of  the  work  done  may  be  considerable. 

5.  In  so  far  as  possible  the  exercise  corresponds  to  the  psychic  needs 
and  stage  of  development  of  the  individual.     Thus,  the  needs  of  adoles- 
cents are  not  the  same  as  those  of  business  men.     Competition  is  de- 
liberately and  intelligently  used  in  a  restricted  way. 

6.  Great  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  position  of  the  trunk.     This  is 
with  special  reference  to  the  effects  upon  the  contained  viscera. 

7.  The  amount  of  memory  and  attention  demanded  from  the  pupils 
is  minimized.     Thus,  there  is  little  or  no  committing  to  memory  of 
series  of  long  exercises.     The  whole  trend  of  the  work  taught  is  toward 
athletics  rather  than  toward  gymnastics.     Games  are  used  exclusively. 
The  gymnastics  that  are  taught  partake  more  and  more  of  the  character 
of  athletics.     Thus,  on  the  parallel  bars  and  the  German  horse  few  exer  • 


DANCING  63 

cises  are  used  in  which  the  body  is  supported  by  the  arms,  but  many  in 
which  the  apparatus  is  regarded  as  an  obstacle  to  be  overcome  in  various 
ways. 

DANCING 

A  separate  paragraph  may  be  devoted  to  the  subject  of  dancing, 
partly  because  dancing  is  the  only  or  the  principal  form  of  active  phys- 
ical exertion  taken  by  a  comparatively  large  number  of  persons  during 
certain  months  of  the  year,  and  partly  because  of  the  scanty  recognition 
it  has  received  from  systematic  writers  on  therapeutic  exercise.  Its 
abuses  need  not  be  dilated  upon;  its  uses  are  to  be  recognized. 

Dancing  has  from  the  earliest  times  been  a  considerable  factor  in  the 
physical  life  of  many  persons,  and  its  evolutionary  and  sociologic  signi- 
ficance should  not  be  overlooked.     The  pleasurable  features  of  the  exer- 
cise and  the  associated  influence  of  music  are  no  mean  factors  in  its 
physiologic  and  hygienic  effects.     The  dancing-schools  have  been  effi- 
cient aids  in  teaching  good  posture  of  the  body  and  grace  of  movement. 
Dancing  itself,  consisting  of  a  very  large  number  of  movements  of  the^ 
larger  groups  of  muscles  of  the  body,  is  an  excellent  exercise  from  the • 
physiologic    standpoint.     Heart,  lungs,  digestion,  as  well  as  muscular- 
tissue,  are  all  involved. 

There  is  slowly  but  surely  coming  into  our  secondary  schools  and 
colleges  a  recognition  of  dancing  as  a  bodily  discipline.  I  refer  not  to 
society  dances,  but  to  the  old  folk-dancing,  much  of  which  involves 
bodily  movements.  This  is  excellent,  and  will  enrich  the  physical 
training  program,  making  it  increasingly  effective  and  at  the  same  time 
increasingly  interesting. 


OF  THE 

|    UNIVERSITY  ) 

OF 

£JLJFQRNA 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Adolescence, 46 

Age  and  sex,  relation  of  physical  exercise  to 44 

Apparatus,  gymnastic,  heavy, 37 

Automatic  exercises, 15 

Basket  Ball, 40 

Bicycling, 42 

Bodily  symmetry 25 

Bowling, 43 

Brain, 17 

importance  of  physical  exercise  in  development  of, 17 

Calisthenics, 31 

Cerebral  hygiene, 21 

Circulation  of  fluids, 13 

City  and  exercise 3 

Competition, 26 

Condition, 51 

Co-operation  among  contiguous  nerve-centers, 18 

Dancing, 63 

"  Day's  Order, "  Swedish, 48 

Delsarte, 59 

Diseases  of  occupation, 3 

Dosage, 26 

Educational  gymnastics, 20,  56 

Effort,    14 

Emerson,  C.  W., 61 

Endurance,    53 

English  physical  exercise 58 

Evolution  and  exercise,   2 

Excessive  and  moderate  exercises, 16 

Exercise  and  evolution 2 

physiology  of,   9 

position  during, 1 1 

Exercises,  automatic, 15 

voluntary,   15 

Fatigue, 18 

Fencing, 42 

Field  and  track  sports, 39 

Fluids,  circulation  of, 13 

Football,    47 

Footpounds  of  work,   12 

Function  makes  structure,    6 

Games, 39 

General  effects  of  muscular  exercise, 9 

65 


66  INDEX 

PAGE 

German  gymnastics, 54 

Goif, :...-.  43 

Gutsmuths, 54 

Gymnastic  apparatus,  heavy, 37 

Gymnastics,  educational, 20,  56 

German, 54 

hygienic, 48 

schools, 50 

society,   60 

Swedish,    56 

systems  of,   54 

Habit, 52 

Health  and  schools,   4 

Heavy  gymnastic  apparatus,  .  .  .  : 37 

Hepatic  circulation, 14 

Horseback  riding, 43 

Hygienic  gymnastics, 48 

Importance  of  physical  exercise  in  development  of  brain, 17 

Indian  club, 32 

Instincts,  play, 44 

Intrathoracic  pressure,   14 

Jahn,  F.  L., 54 

Limits  of  specialization, 24 

Ling,  P.  H., 56 

Materia  gymnastica,    29 

Moderate  and  excessive  exercises, 16 

Motor  centers,  order  of  development  of, 19 

Muscle-cell, '. 9 

Muscles,  position  of,  during  exercise, 1 1 

"         tend  to  contract  even  during  rest, 1 1 

Muscular  exercise,  general  effects  of, 9 

special  effects, 10 

Natural  function, 48 

Nerve-centers,  co-operation  among  contiguous, .  .  . 18 

Neurologic  considerations,    15 

Occupation,  diseases  of, 3 

Order  of  development  of  motor  centers 19 

Oxygen  absorbed, 14 

Peristalsis, 14 

Physiologic  load, 13 

Physiology  of  exercise, 9 

Play  instincts, 44 

Position  during  exercise, %. 1 1 

"         thorax,  spine, 14 

Psychic  activity  and  muscular  contraction, 21 

Pulley-weight  exercises, 33 

Relation  of  physical  exercise  to  age  and  sex, 44 

Running  and  walking, 29 

Sargent,  Dr.  Dudley  A.,   60 

School  gymnastics, 50 

Schools  and  health,   4 


INDEX  67 

PAGE 

Scoliosis,   •. 51 

Seguin, 51 

Sex  and  age,  relation  of  physical  exercise  to, 44 

Society  gymnastics, 60 

Somatic  harmony, 25 

Sparring, 41 

Special  effects  of  muscular  exercise, 10 

"       exercise 47 

Specialization, 23 

Spiess,   55 

Spine, 14 

"       position  of, 14 

Strength, 53 

Structure,  function  makes, 6 

Suggestion 37 

Swedish  "Day's  Order, " 48 

gymnastics, 56 

Systems  of  gymnastics, 54 

Thorax, 14 

position  of, 14 

Track  and  field  sports 39 

Training, 51 

Turnvereins, 55 

Useful  games 41 

Vasomotor  hygiene, '21 

Vis  naturas, 8 

Voluntary  exercises, 15 

Walking  and  running 29 

Wrestling, ' 41 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 62 

Zander  machines 34 


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